Hyperemotionality and enhanced tonic immobility after septal lesions in the rabbit

Large lesions of the septal region in the rabbit increased tonic immobility as measured by the number of successful inductions and by duration of immobility. Open field activity was also increased. Septally lesioned rabbits also exhibited increased emotionality, although the topography of the 'septal syndrome' in these rabbits was different from that described for rats. The septally lesioned rabbits exhibited increases in fear reactions such as thumping, escape responses and vocalization when caught, rather than increased aggressiveness. The results are discussed in terms of loss of inhibition of species-typical responses after septal damage.     

Tonic immobility in the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus, Rathbun): Its relation to threat of predation.

Investigated the tonic immobility response in the blue crab in a series of 7 experiments, using a total of 209 blue crabs. Although reported to be a powerful variable in other species, preinduction electric shock produced inconsistent increases in the duration of tonic immobility with the Ss. Manipulations that were more directly relevant to the fear of predation had considerably greater effects than shock. Physical damage to the chelipeds, mirror image stimulation, and immobilization beneath artificial glass eyes all produced significant prolongation of the immobility episode. Ss immobilized on a bed of sand rather than on a hard surface showed shorter immobility durations, suggesting that opportunity for escape is an important variable affecting the immobility reaction. Results support the contention that threat of predation is the organizing principle behind tonic immobility. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal inclusions in brown eggs: relationships with fearfulness and stress

Tonic immobility reaction and heterophil: lymphocyte ratio (indices of fearfulness and stress, respectively) were studied in hens laying eggs with or without internal inclusions (blood and meat spots). Two brown egg Spanish breed of chickens were used. There were no significant differences between groups in terms of tonic immobility duration. Birds of the group with internal inclusions appeared to be less fearful when defined by the number of inductions to achieve tonic immobility (1.4+/-0.1 vs 1.1+/-0.1; P < 0.01). Tonic immobility duration was significantly shorter in the group of hens with internal inclusions, when only those laying the abnormal egg the day before measurement of tonic immobility were included in this group (264+/-33 vs 395+/-30 s; P < 0.01). There was a significant difference in the heterophil:lymphocyte ratio between the two groups of hens (P < 0.01), mean value being significantly higher in the group with internal inclusions (0.43+/-0.02) than in the control group (0.33+/-0.02). Hens that laid eggs with internal inclusions had significant heterophilia (P < 0.01). Differences were consistent across the breeds. The incidence of internal inclusions was significantly greater (P < 0.001) in eggs with pink shells (an abnormality associated with the effect of stress). The results suggest that the laying of eggs with internal inclusions involves changes in fearfulness and stressfulness of hens.     

Animal hypnosis: Factual status of a fictional concept.

Notes that animal hypnosis, or tonic immobility, is an easily induced and readily quantifiable phenomenon found in many different species. Recent findings on the behavioral, ecological, chemical, neurological, genetic, and ontogenetic aspects of animal hypnosis are reviewd in light of current and historical interpretations. The response seems to be quite sensitive to manipulations designed to affect fear. In terms of adaptive significance, the reaction can be modified through selective breeding, and both naturalistic as well as laboratory investigations bolster the thesis that tonic immobility may participate in the ecology of predator-prey relationships. (93 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia is associated with tonic positive emotionality.

Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSAREST) indexes important aspects of individual differences in emotionality. In the present investigation, the authors address whether RSAREST is associated with tonic positive or negative emotionality, and whether RSAREST relates to phasic emotional responding to discrete positive emotion-eliciting stimuli. Across an 8-month, multiassessment study of first-year university students (n = 80), individual differences in RSAREST were associated with positive but not negative tonic emotionality, assessed at the level of personality traits, long-term moods, the disposition toward optimism, and baseline reports of current emotional states. RSAREST was not related to increased positive emotion, or stimulus-specific emotion, in response to compassion-, awe-, or pride-inducing stimuli. These findings suggest that resting RSA indexes aspects of a person's tonic positive emotionality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral similarities and differences among alcohol-preferring and -nonpreferring rats: confirmation by factor analysis and extension to additional groups

Thirteen behavioral variables from six tasks were measured in alcohol-preferring (AA, FH, and P) and -nonpreferring (ANA, FRL, and NP) rat lines/strains and subjected to Factor Analysis. Four Independent factors accounted for > 90% of the variance. Defecation in the open field and ultrasonic vocalizations after an air puff were negatively correlated with alcohol intake and preference, whereas the increase in daily fluid intake in the presence of saccharin was positively correlated. Other factors could be labeled Activity, Emotionality, and immobility Factors, and each was independent of the Alcohol Factor. When an additional alcohol-preferring rat line (HAD) and two additional nonpreferring groups (LAD and ACI) were tested, they were found to differ on most behaviors that were associated with alcohol intake and preference in the Factor Analysis; vocalizations and saccharin-induced increase in fluid intake, but not defection. A new Factor Analysis was then performed incorporating these three new groups and including five new behavioral measures. The following measures had high loadings on the Alcohol Factor: alcohol intake under choice conditions; alcohol preference; forced alcohol intake; alcohol acceptance (forced alcohol intake/basal water intake x 100); ultrasonic vocalization; saccharin intake; saccharin-induced increase in daily fluid intake; defecation in the open field test; and immobility in a modified forced swim test. These findings indicate that there are indeed certain behavioral characteristics that are common among alcohol-preferring rat lines/strains, but there are also substantial group differences on other behavioral measures. For those behavioral measures reflecting emotionality (defecation and ultrasonic vocalization) that loaded highly on the Alcohol Factor, the alcohol-preferring rats had lower scores.     

"Scared Stiff": Catatonia as an Evolutionary-Based Fear Response.

Catatonia, long viewed as a motor disorder, may be better understood as a fear response, akin to the animal defense strategy tonic immobility (after G. G. Gallup & J. D. Maser, 1977). This proposal, consistent with K. L. Kahlbaum's (1874/1973) original conception, is based on similarities between catatonia and tonic immobility ("death feint") as well as evidence that catatonia is associated with anxiety and agitated depression and responds dramatically to benzodiazepines. It is argued that catatonia originally derived from ancestral encounters with carnivores whose predatory instincts were triggered by movement but is now inappropriately expressed in very different modern threat situations. Found in a wide range of psychiatric and serious medical conditions, catatonia may represent a common "end state" response to feelings of imminent doom and can serve as a template to understand other psychiatric disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of conditioned fear on tonic immobility in domestic chickens.

Conducted 2 conditioned fear experiments with 36 and 14 Production Red chickens. Ss given brief exposure to a compound stimulus which had been previously paired with intense electric shock remained immobile significantly longer following manual restraint than Ss which received either shock only or the compound stimulus only during training. The administration of a tranquilizer (metoserpate hydrochloride, pacitran) reduced the effect of conditioned fear on the resulting duration of immobility. Results provide strong support for the notion that fear underlies the tonic immobility reaction in domestic fowl. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aversiveness of the induction of tonic immobility in chickens (Gallus gallus).

Notes that, because of its sensitivity to various manipulations associated with either increases or decreases in aversive stimulation, tonic immobility seems to qualify as a fear reaction. The present experiments provided an independent assessment of the aversive properties of immobility induction. In Exp I, using 32 Production Red day-old chickens, a cue previously paired with onset of immobility suppressed activity in a stabilimeter. Similarly, in Exp II, with 24 Production Red day-old chickens, response-contingent immobilization produced punishmentlike effects in an instrumental conditioning paradigm. Taken together, results support the notion that the physical restraint involved in immobility induction is an aversive event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal care, isolation-induced infant ultrasonic calling, and their relations to adult anxiety-related behavior in the rat.

In the rat, variations in maternal care affect the development of stable individual differences in anxiety-related behavior. Here, it was asked whether such experience-dependent differences can be detected already during early life. As a measure for anxiety in pups, isolation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations were used, and their dependency on different maternal behaviors, namely licking, retrieval behavior, and responsiveness to playback of pup calls, was tested. Consistent with reported differences of adult rats with high or low levels of maternal care experienced, the rarely licked offspring appeared to be more anxious, since they emitted more calls when separated from their mother and litter. Based on these findings, it was examined whether infant calling can be used as a predictor of adult anxiety-related behavior. Results show that infant call emission was negatively correlated with immobility and calling during fear conditioning. These relationships seem to be mediated at least partly by maternal care. In total, measuring ultrasonic vocalizations can provide information about an affective trait of infant and adult rats, which gives the opportunity to study the development of emotionality from early life onward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of administration of adrenalin on immobility reaction in domestic fowl.

Results of 2 experiments with White Leghorn chicks (N = 49) lend support to the hypothesis that tonic immobility is mediated by fear. In Exp. I, Ss injected subcutaneously with adrenalin remained immobile for a significantly greater duration than Ss injected subcutaneously with physiological saline. In Exp. II, it was found that a subcutaneous injection of adrenalin both facilitated the onset and maintained the duration of the immobility reaction in nonsusceptible Ss which previously showed no immobility. An injection of physiological saline neither facilitated nor maintained the immobility reaction in a control group of nonsusceptible Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A reevaluation of the relation between estrogen and emotionality in female rats.

It has been hypothesized that the emotionality of the female rat is reduced at estrus. In confirmation of previous research, the present 5 experiments with 112 Ss show that administration of estradiol benzoate (20 mug/kg) to female rats of the Maudsley Reactive (MR) strain increased open-field activity and decreased open-field defecation. In addition, ovariectomy increased open-field defecation in MR females. Supporting the generality of these findings, hormone administration reduced open-field defecation and increased open-field activity in intact females of a genetically heterogeneous background. Additional studies suggest that the decrease in open-field defecation at estrus is dependent on estrogenic suppression of food intake. Hormone replacement decreased food intake in the period preceding the open-field test, and colonic contents were also lower in rats treated with estradiol benzoate plus progesterone immediately after the completion of the open-field test. These changes were seen in both MR and genetically heterogeneous females. It is concluded that the decrease in open-field defecation at estrus may be mediated by a reduction in food intake and a consequent decrease in colonic contents and that the validity of the defecation response as a measure of emotionality may be seriously questioned under these circumstances. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Maudsley reactive and nonreactive strains: a North American perspective

The Maudsley experiment involving bidirectional selection for differences in open-field defecation (OFD) is briefly reviewed. Attention is focused on the North American stocks of these strains since problems have been encountered with regard to the open-field behavior and continued viability of the British stocks. The open-field behavior of the colonies of the Maudsley strains at the National Institutes of Health and at the University of Northern Iowa closely resembles that originally exhibited by the British strains, provided they are compared under standard conditions. On more complex behaviors, such as escape-avoidance conditioning, serious discrepancies have emerged between the British and North American findings. These may be resolved when attempts are made to replicate more closely the procedures used in the British studies. Particular emphasis has been placed on the potential of a second nonreactive strain, the MNRA/HAR strain, to serve as a replicate of selection for decreased emotionality. The value of the RXNRA group of recombinant-inbred strains, developed and maintained by the author, for examining the reliability of associations between traits is also stressed. A correlation between OFD and biochemical aspects of sympathetic function has been found in the Maudsley strains. This finding lends credibility to Hall's claim that the expression of emotionality is linked to autonomic arousal.     

Alcohol consumption, water consumption, and emotionality in mice.

Tested 95 F2 mice for 1 mo. on a variety of tests of emotionality and activity. For a 2nd mo. Ss were given a choice of tap water of 10% ethanol for fluid consumption. 42 measures from emotionality testing were correlated with 30 readings of alcohol and 30 readings of water consumption. Abosolute consumption of alcohol and the relationship between emotionality and alcohol consumption increased over the 30-day period. 3 major shifts in the pattern of correlations over time were observed, suggesting a 3-stage theory of fluid consumption in the 2-choice situation. High alcohol consumption in the last stage, which accounted for most of the correlations, is related to a pattern of emotionality involving high activity, low freezing, and low emotional defecation. A construct of stress resistance is hypothesized to account for these relationships in conflict with classical drive-reduction theory. The 1st stage is considered to be more compatible with classical drive-reduction theory. An intermediate or transition stage is also involved with suggestions that this may be more complex for alcohol than water consumption. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of trials on "emotionality" behavior of the rat and mouse.

Exposed Sprague-Dawley rats and A/Jax, C57BL/18, or DBA/1 mice repeatedly to open-field, emerge-from-home-cage, and runway "emotionality" tests. The 7 experiments indicated that times to emerge from the home cage and reach the end of a runway decreased consistently over trials. Over-field activity and defecation and the tendency to enter the open field's center area were not consistently affected by trials, however. Fear of the novelty of the open field, area outside the home cage, and runway should habituate over trials. Results suggest that emerge and runway times are more affected by fear of novel stimuli than are open-field activity and defecation and the tendency to enter the open field's center area. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Habituation and tonic immobility in domestic chickens

The habituation of tonic immobility in chickens was examined in six studies. It was shown that repeated elicitation of immobility, and not just handling, was responsible for reduced response durations after multiple exposures to manual restraint. Habituation was a function of the number of stimulus presentations and, in addition, proved surprisingly durable, with diminished reactions using lasting at least 2.5 mo. Strain differences were found in the number of trials required to reach a criteria of habituation, and habituation proceeded faster when immobility termination was self-paced as opposed to experimenter induced. Also, massed trials produced robust sensitization effects rather than diminished responsiveness.     

Emotionality, emotion regulation, and adaptation among 5- to 8-year-old children.

This study investigated relations between emotionality, emotion regulation, and children's behavioral adaptation in a longitudinal design. Mothers rated emotionality and emotion regulation related to anger, fear, and positive emotions-exuberance for 151 children at age 5 and later at age 6 years 6 months. Emotionality and emotion regulation measures were modestly related. Preschool ratings at age 6 (n=125), maternal ratings at age 6 years 6 months (n=133), and elementary school ratings at age 8 (n=135) of problems and competence were also collected. High anger emotionality and low regulation of positive emotions and exuberance predicted externalizing problem behavior and prosocial behavior. High fear emotionality and low fear regulation predicted internalizing problem behavior. There were few interactive effects of emotionality and regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rearing influences on tonic immobility in three-day-old chicks (Gallus gallus).

Subjected 86 3-day-old White Leghorn chicks, reared either socially or in isolation in large or small boxes, to tonic immobility by a ventral restraint induction procedure. Test boxes were identical to rearing boxes or differed only in size. Incidence and duration of immobility were reliably enhanced by social and high-density rearing, but similarity of test and rearing boxes had no effect. A high negative correlation between vocalization rate and duration of eye closure was obtained. Results are discussed in terms of the optimizing induction procedure in relation to early righting behavior. Qualitatively different stages of immobility are defined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioned inhibition and tonic immobility: Stimulus control of an innate fear response in the chicken.

Investigated the role of Pavlovian contingencies in modifying the tonic immobility reaction (IR) of Production Red chickens (N = 62) in 2 experiments. In Exp. I, Ss which received a stimulus associated with shock onset (CS1) showed facilitated duration of and increased susceptibility to IR compared with Ss which received a cue paired with shock offset (CS2). However, the lack of difference between Ss receiving CS1 and Ss receiving no stimulation, and the relatively low duration of IR, implied that CS2 training could mask the effects of conditioned fear. Exp. II provided an independent assessment of the relative strengths of CS1 and CS2. The former stimulus was shown to potentiate and the latter to actively inhibit IR. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tonic immobility in chickens: Possible involvement of monoamines.

In 4 experiments with a total of 259 Production Red chickens, it was found that tonic immobility was affected by a variety of drugs that act on monoaminergic systems. Compounds that enhanced the duration of tonic immobility were dextro-LSD, 2-bromo-dextro-lysergic acid (BOL-148), pargyline, and iproniazid; no effect was found when Ss were given 5-hydroxytryptophan, para-chlorophenylalanine, or atropine. Injections of serotonin depressed response duration. A suggestive parallel was noted between the results of the present study and those of previous work reporting drug-induced suppression of raphe electrical activity. The data implicate monoamines, especially serotonin, in the mediation of behavioral activation and suppression. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)