Effects of acid mine drainage on groundwater quality: a case study from an open-pit copper mine in eastern Turkey

This study was undertaken to determine the variation in groundwater quality of an open-pit copper mine in Maden (eastern Turkey) which has been in operation since 2000 BC, and with modern methods since 1939. Physical and chemical parameters (including pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, concentrations of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, HCO₃, SO₄, NO₃, Fe, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Cd, and Pb) of the groundwater and spring water samples from the study area were measured on a seasonal basis between October 2009 and July 2010. The groundwater quality was hydrochemically assessed in order to determine its suitability for human consumption and agricultural use. The measured and analyzed parameters in all the water samples were below the maximum admissible concentrations set out in international and national standards, guidelines, directives, and regulations for human consumption and for agricultural purposes. In addition, the results of previous studies on the possible effects of the mine site on soil, stream sediment, plants, and surface water in the same area are discussed.     

Chemical composition of precipitation in tropical marine atmosphere around Indian subcontinent

Precipitation samples collected on board Indian Naval ships over the oceans surrounding peninsular India during MONEX-79 experimental programme of GARP, were assayed for Na, Cl, Mg, Ca, K, Sb, Th, Fe, Zn, Sc, Cr, Co and SO₄ concentrations. The Na/Cl and Mg/Cl distribution is observed to be in the same ratio as that found in sea water. SO₄/Na ratio in rain water also lies very close to sea water ratio of 0.25, unlike that reported for marine aerosols. K and Ca levels indicate an enrichment with reference to Na. Samples collected far away from the coast suggest enrichment of Ca in the sea salt aerosol and that from nearer the coast also gave high Ca excesses indicative of its contribution from the land. Major source of Fe and Sc appears to be of soil origin, while continental derived elements of anthropogenic origin such as Zn and Sb correlate with Rn concentrations and are useful as tracers for air mass movements.     

The impact of wastewater irrigation on the chemical quality of groundwater

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the groundwater impact of irrigation with industrial wastewater (baker's yeast wastewater, BYW) and to determine if agricultural reuse can be considered as an efficient wastewater treatment method. The impact of the irrigation and the status of the groundwater quality were determined using chemical parameters that are typical contaminants of BYW and characterise the content of total suspended solids (TSSs), organic matter (biochemical and chemical oxygen demands), nutrients (N_org, N‐NH₄, N‐NO₃, N_total, P_total and K), salts (Cl, SO₄ and Na) and pH. The study revealed that BYW irrigation did not cause a significant increase in the content of these parameters in groundwater at a low water table region (WTR). However, at a high WTR, the irrigation had an extremely significant (P < 0.001) impact on the chemical status of groundwater that has been demonstrated by substantially high values of COD, N‐NH₄, Cl, SO₄ and Na.     

Hydrogeochemical study of the clastic aquifer in the Umm Gudair field,Kuwait

The Kuwait Group aquifer is a major source of brackish groundwater in the State of Kuwait. The aquifer ranges in thickness from 150–400 m. In the Umm Gudair well field, the water has total dissolved solids ranging from 3,130 to 4,790 mg/l. According to the Sulin classification, all the Kuwait Group aquifer samples are characterized as Cl–Mg or Cl–Ca genetic water types. The chemical data indicate that the aquifer is generally in equilibrium with respect to calcite, dolomite and gypsum but undersaturated with respect to halite and polygorskite. The study has indicated that de-dolomitization is the major geochemical process controlling the chemistry of this aquifer, increasing the major complexes of sulphate and carbonate due to the dissolution of gypsum. The ratio of Cl/Na indicates that the Na⁺ ions have been taken from the Kuwait Group aquifer by reverse ion exchange.      

Groundwater quality assessment of Dhanbad district, Jharkhand, India

Groundwater quality assessment is important to ensure sustainable safe use of water. However describing the overall water quality in the Dhanbad coal mining area of India is difficult due to the spatial variability of multiple contaminants and wide range of indicators that could be measured. An attempt has been made to study the spatial variation of groundwater quality based on an integrated analysis of physico-chemical parameters and use of Geographic Information System (GIS). Using GIS contouring methods with Arcview 3.2a, spatial distribution maps of Hardness, pH, TDS, HCO₃, SO₄, NO₃, Ca, Mg, Cl, and F have been created. From the Water Quality Index map it is inferred that despite the mining and heavy industry, the quality of water is predominantly good to excellent.     

Metal concentrations in a shallow groundwater aquifer underneath petrochemical complex

Duplicate groundwater samples were collected from 104 monitoring wells (piezometers) from shallow aquifers underneath an industrial city in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Concentrations of Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Ti, V, Zn, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cl, SO₄, alkalinity, salinity, total dissolved salts, and pH were determined in these samples. Analysis of variance showed significantly (p < 0.05) wide variations in the concentrations of the above parameters. The contour maps of metal concentrations indicated that these variations were related to important landmarks in the study area. The results of correlation analyses suggest that geographical as well as chemical factors may influence metal distribution in the groundwater samples. To investigate the geographical effects, the analytical data were normalized (element/Cl ratios were calculated) for chemical variability. As expected, contour mapping of the ratio data of element/Cl of Na, Ca, Mg, K, SO₄, alkalinity, salinity, total dissolved salts, and Sr vary in a relatively small range and did not show a particular geographical trend. The groundwater sample from the industrial-dust area contained higher ratios between concentrations of Cl and Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn. These observations clearly suggest an extraneous contamination source, probably industrial dust, in the area. Another geographical area where metal (As, Cd, Cu, Mo, Ni, Ti,and V)/Cl ratios were found to be large was in the vicinity of an oil-refinery. Groundwater samples collected from the vicinity of a fertilizer plant and green-belt area contained relatively higher ratios of Al, Cd, Cr, Co, and Ni. The results of this study suggest that leachate from the industrial dust, leakage from the oil refinery and fertilizer plant, and drainage of irrigation water are some of the important pollution sources in the industrial city.     

Integrative quantification and balancing of contaminant fluxes in urban groundwater, case study Darmstadt

The qualitative and quantitative impact of a city on groundwater is presented in the case study of Darmstadt. The impact of land use on groundwater quality in Darmstadt is higher than the impact of background geological processes. The occurrence of Cl, B and Fe is only influenced by land use, while EC, HCO₃ and PO₄ are controlled by geology and land use. An integrative, spatially differentiating quantification of mass fluxes shows that e. g. Cl and B are introduced from urban sources such as leaking sewers and road salting. Input is highest under industrial areas (Cl 317 mg/d?·?m², B 0,6 mg/d?·?m²). For N_tot agricultural input (114 mg/d?·?m²) is more important than urban input with a maximum of 14 mg/d?·?m². Comparing overall urban input with estimated urban input, it can be concluded that there are additional sources for HCO₃, Ca, Mg, SO₄, Na, Cl, B and NO₃, which are not included in the estimated input (e. g. geogenic sources, fill material, industrial sources & degradation processes). PO₄ and N_tot on the other hand are being degraded and COD is consumed. A decrease of concentrations downstream from the city can be ascribed to diving plumes.     

Spatio-temporal change of water chemical elements in Lake Dianchi, China

Lake Dianchi is a large lake, which is listed in the 'Three Important Lakes Restoration Act in China'. The water quality has deteriorated from class II in the 1970s to class V today, with an attendant increase in the frequency and intensity of the formation of blue algae blooms. From 2003 to 2006, a water quality monitoring programme was implemented for eight regional zones in Lake Dianchi. It monitored the following substances: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), potassium (K), sodium (Na), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and chlorine (Cl), together with water temperature, pH, total hardness and total salt content. Data were analysed using regression models to determine the impacts of these substances and conditions for the formation of blue algae bloom, and to assess their relationship with chlorophyll a . The results showed a significant relationship between chlorophyll a and C, P, N, Cl, Fe, Mg, water temperature, pH, total hardness and total salt. There was no significant relationship between chlorophyll a and total manganese (TMn), Mn, sulphate (SO₄²⁻), soluble total manganese STMn, Ca, Zn, K, Na and Cu. The study showed that the concentration of chlorophyll a in different regions of the lake was different, indicating that the mix of chemicals in a region has a different impact on pollution levels throughout Lake Dianchi.     

A pristine environment and water quality in perspective: Maliau Basin, Borneo's mysterious world

The chemical characteristics of the surface water of Eucalyptus River, in Maliau Basin, were studied based on its major ion chemistry and its suitability for drinking, domestic use and irrigation. Water samples from the river were collected and analysed for pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, Cl, SO₄, Ca, Mg, Na and K. Besides major elements, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Cr, Bi, Cd, Ba, Pb, As, Al, V, Se, Ag, Sr and Li were also determined in this study. The results show that the river water of the area reflects natural factors and is regarded as fresh water and suitable for drinking and domestic use. The calculated values of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Mg hazard and salinity hazard indicate that the river water is of high quality and suitable for agricultural and irrigation purposes. This study contributes baseline data for a pristine, forested environment for future reference.     

Cementation of Sands Due to Microbiologically-Induced Carbonate Precipitation

In this study, microbial precipitation of carbonate was observed using high microbial urease activity, and it was found that the ratio of Mg/Ca affected the types of crystals produced. Without Mg²⁺, calcite was produced using only CaCl₂, while the presence of Mg produced Mg-calcite, magnesite and/or possibly dolomite of round, spherical or fibrous shapes, depending on reaction time, pH and Mg/Ca ratio. The carbonate produced contributed to the development of cementation for sands. The presence of Mg showed a relatively strong cementation of the carbonate.     

Deterioration of coastal groundwater quality in Rameswaram Island of Ramanathapuram District, Southern India

A study was carried out in the South-West, North-East and North-West segments dividing the local area of Rameswaram Island to characterize the physico-chemical characteristics of 87 groundwater samples which include pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, total alkalinity (TA), calcium hardness (CH), magnesium hardness, total hardness (TH), chloride and fluoride. Heavy inorganic load in majority of the groundwater samples has been estimated due to the salinity, TDS, TH and chloride beyond the threshold level which substantiates the percolation of sea water into the freshwater confined zones. The Water Quality Index and Langeleir Saturation Index have also been calculated to know the potable and corrosive/incrusting nature of the water samples. The results are interpreted based on statistical tools. Greater than 80% of the samples were found to have exceeded the limit of WHO drinking standard especially in TDS, CH, TA and chloride. The signature of salt-water intrusion is observed from the ratio of Cl/CO₃ ^2? + HCO₃ ^? and TA/TH. A proper management plan to cater potable water to the immediate needs of the people is to be envisaged.     

ALKALINITY CONTROL PROPERTIES OF THE SOLIDIFIED/STABILIZED SLUDGE BY A LOW ALKALINITY ADDITIVE

Several chemical reactions controlling the alkalinity of solidified/stabilized sludge using a low alkalinity additive (mainly composed of gypsum and slag) are investigated experimentally. The influence of curing conditions (open air or sealed) on the alkali leaching characteristics of the treated sludge was evaluated from the viewpoint of carbonate uptake and leaching properties of cations (Ca, K, Na, Mg, Al and Si). Modified batch leaching tests were conducted for the treated sludge cured in both open air and sealed conditions to characterize the alkali and cation leaching behaviour. Mineralogical characterization was performed through X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and the Calcimeter test traced the variation of carbonate amount in the treated sludge under curing. In addition, the type of hydration products in treated sludge was also estimated by the acid neutralization capacity (ANC) tests. Experimental results showed that open air curing has an effect to decrease the pH of solutions from batch leaching tests compared to sealed curing, since the sludge cured in open air contained more carbonate and less hydroxide than those cured in sealed condition. Promoting the carbonation of Ca(OH)_₂ by contact with carbon dioxide could reduce the alkalinity of treated sludge. In addition, the amount of magnesium carbonates (e.g. MgCO_₃) and the fraction of Mg ions in treated sludge could affect the pH of leached water.     

Environmental assessment of a road site built with MSWI residue

A 23-year-old road built with MSWI residue (mix of fly and bottom ashes) was investigated through the environmental assessment of the residue, soils (adjacent to and underlying the road) and seepage waters. The pH and ANC_4.3 of the material indicate a low carbonation and a high alkaline stock. The material leaches few trace elements. The underlying road soil shows significant effects with respect to K and Na, attributable to the MSWI residue. Effects regarding Cd, Cr, Cu and Ni are observed, yet pollution thresholds are not exceeded. Compared to groundwater thresholds, the MSWI residue percolate is of poor to very poor quality (French reference system — FWQAS) in terms of pH, K, Na, Cl⁻, F⁻, As and Cu. It lies above the intervention values of the Dutch Soil Protection Act (DSPA) for Cu, Ni and Pb. Downstream, water from the road shoulder (W_Sdr) is of very poor quality with respect to Na and Cl⁻, and fair to poor quality regarding K. All other parameters comply with the best quality thresholds (FWQAS and DSPA). The high Cl⁻ concentration of W_Sdr would not fit for direct discharge in any watercourse. Toward a weakly-mineralised water, Cd and Cu would also be penalizing. The geometry of the road site creates penalizing conditions increasing the washing of the MSWI residue. The road structure does not cause downstream effect as regards trace elements, but effects exist for Cl⁻, Na and K. Opposite downstream effects are observed (Ca, Mg, Mn and SO₄²⁻) due to farming treatments and the nature of the local soil.     

Estimation of environmental impacts on the water quality of Incesu-Dokuzpınar Springs in Kayseri,Turkey

Industrial and agricultural activities have directly or indirectly affected the concentrations of a large number of inorganic chemicals in groundwater, for example NO₃, N₂, Cl, SO₄, H⁺, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Cu, B, Pb and Zn, as well as a wide variety of pesticides and other organic compounds. For reactive contaminants like NO₃, it is recommended that a combination of hydrochemical and environmental-tracer analytical approaches might be required to resolve changing inputs from subsequent alterations as causes of concentration gradients in groundwater. The water type of ncesu-Dokuzpnar Springs is mainly Na–Mg–Ca–Cl–HCO₃. Note that the water types of the Springs were directly related to the hydrogeochemical properties of outcrops at the study area. Thus, the high concentration of Ca⁺² and HCO₃ is mainly related to the high CO₂ contents in the marbles, whereas the high Na concentration arises from the existing syenite, volcanic ash, basalt and clay units, although the ncesu-Dokuzpnar Springs cover most of the drinking and irrigation water demands at the study area. Therefore, relevant hydrogeochemical and statistical studies were carried out for estimating the mentioned environmental impacts on the water quality of ncesu-Dokuzpnar Springs.     

Hydrochemical characteristics and water quality assessment of surface water and groundwater in Songnen plain, Northeast China

Water quality is the critical factor that influence on human health and quantity and quality of grain production in semi-humid and semi-arid area. Songnen plain is one of the grain bases in China, as well as one of the three major distribution regions of soda saline-alkali soil in the world. To assess the water quality, surface water and groundwater were sampled and analyzed by fuzzy membership analysis and multivariate statistics. The surface water were gather into class I, IV and V, while groundwater were grouped as class I, II, III and V by fuzzy membership analysis. The water samples were grouped into four categories according to irrigation water quality assessment diagrams of USDA. Most water samples distributed in category C1-S1, C2-S2 and C3-S3. Three groups were generated from hierarchical cluster analysis. Four principal components were extracted from principal component analysis. The indicators to water quality assessment were Na, HCO₃, NO₃, Fe, Mn and EC from principal component analysis. We conclude that surface water and shallow groundwater are suitable for irrigation, the reservoir and deep groundwater in upstream are the resources for drinking. The water for drinking should remove of the naturally occurring ions of Fe and Mn. The control of sodium and salinity hazard is required for irrigation. The integrated management of surface water and groundwater for drinking and irrigation is to solve the water issues.     

Hydrogeological and Hydrochemical Study of the Al-Shagaya Field-F, Kuwait

The study area, Al-Shagaya Field-F, is located at the south western part of Kuwait and includes twenty-seven production water wells, tapping the Kuwait Group aquifer. The main objectives of this study were to identify the aquifer type, determine its properties, outline the geological factors and the hydrochemical processes that control the quality of the groundwater of the study area, and to assess the water quality of the Kuwait Group aquifer. Analyses of aquifer test data revealed that the Kuwait Group aquifer acts as a semi-confined to confined aquifer, with a range of transmissivity values between 103 and 1,198 m²/day. The initial water level ranges from 70 to 146 m (M.S.L). The estimated quantity of groundwater entering the study area is about 12,950 m³/day. The chemical analyses show that the groundwater of the study area is a brackish water type, with total dissolved solids ranging from 3,586 to 5,334 mg/l. The aquifer salinity increases in the direction of regional flow towards the NE. The average pH value is 7.7 and the average electrical conductivity is 5,349 s/cm. Groundwater is highly concentrated with Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl^- and SO₄^2- and is depleted in HCO₃^- and Mg²⁺ ions. It is characterized by secondary salinity, where the alkaline earths exceed the alkalies and strong acids exceed weak acids. Three groundwater chemical types are recognized: NaCl, Na₂SO₄ and CaCl₂. The NaCl water type is the most abundant in the study area. The main genetic types of water are: MgCl₂ and Na₂SO₄. It is found that the groundwater is oversaturated with respect to aragonite and calcite and undersaturated with respect to anhydrite, gypsum, halite and dolomite. A comparison of the hydrochemical coefficients of Na⁺/Cl^-, SO₄^2-/Cl^- and Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ in the study area with those of seawater and river water shows that the groundwater of the study area is a mixture of marine and continental water.     

German studies on health effects of inorganic drinking water constituents

The influence of drinking water quality on mortality and morbidityof various diseases has been studied for more than 20 years. From these diseases, those of the cardiovascular system have been playing a special role.Better and more specified information on the differences in thecomposition of drinking water may essentially contribute to a solution of the problem of associations between water quality and the incidence of diseases.In more than 600 water supply areas in the Federal Republic of Germanythe composition of the drinking water has been analyzed. From these data, areas of different water quality are to be selected for additional investigations of the problem of health relevance of drinking water quality. So far, the following constituents of drinking water have been measured: Na, Ca, Mg, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, SO₄, PO₄, NO₃, NO₂, Cl, F, I, etc. The methods of analysis used were atomic absorption spectrometry, plasma emission spectrometry, and ion chromatography.Additionally, more than 19 000 data on drinking water in accordancewith standard analytic procedures under the Drinking Water Regulations are available in a comprehensive data bank (BIBIDAT).There have been studies establishing associations between waterhardness and cardiovascular diseases but also studies which do not confirm this association or even present converse results. Also water constituents like magnesium, cadmium, etc. have been associated with cardiovascular diseases.Some investigations have shown correlations between e.g. the concentration of fluoride in drinking water and caries or iodide and goitre.     

Ultrafiltration behavior of major ions (Na, Ca, Mg, F, Cl, and SO4) in natural waters

Aquatic colloids, including macromolecules and microparticles, with sizes ranging between 1 nm to 1 micron, play important roles in the mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals and other contaminants in natural waters. Cross-flow ultrafiltration has become one of the most commonly used techniques for isolating aquatic colloids. However, the ultrafiltration behavior of chemical species remains poorly understood. We report here the permeation behavior of major ions (Na, Ca, Mg, F, Cl, and SO4) in natural waters during ultrafiltration using an Amicon 1 kDa ultrafiltration membrane (S10N1). Water samples across a salinity gradient of 0-20@1000 were collected from the Trinity River and Galveston Bay. The permeation behavior of major ions was well predicted by a permeation model, resulting in a constant permeation coefficient for each ion. The value of the model-derived permeation coefficient (Pc) was 0.99 for Na, 0.97 for Cl, and 0.95 for F, respectively, in Trinity River waters. Values of Pc close to 1 indicate that retention of Na, Cl, and F by the 1 kDa membrane during ultrafiltration was indeed minimal (< 1-5%). In contrast, significant (14-36%) retention was observed for SO4, Ca, and Mg in Trinity River waters, with a Pc value of 0.64, 0.82, and 0.86 for SO4, Ca and Mg, respectively. However, these retained major ions can further permeate through the 1 kDa membrane during diafiltration with ultrapure water. The selective retention of major ions during ultrafiltration may have important implications for the measurement of chemical and physical speciation of trace elements when using cross-flow ultrafiltration membranes to separate colloidal species from natural waters. Our results also demonstrate that the percent retention of major ions during ultrafiltration decreases with increasing salinity or ionic strength. This retention is largely attributed to electrostatic repulsion by the negatively charged cartridge membrane.     

Groundwater salinization in the Saloum (Senegal) delta aquifer: minor elements and isotopic indicators

The hydrochemistry of minor elements bromide (Br), boron (B), strontium (Sr), environmental stable isotopes (18O and 2H) together with major-ion chemistry (chloride, sodium, calcium) has been used to constrain the source(s), relative age, and processes of salinization in the Continental Terminal (CT) aquifer in the Saloum (mid-west Senegal) region. Seventy-one groundwater wells which include 24 wells contaminated by saltwater and three sites along the hypersaline Saloum River were sampled to obtain additional information on the hydrochemical characteristics of the groundwater defined in previous studies. Use of Br against Cl confirms the Saloum River saline water intrusion up to a contribution of 7% into the aquifer. In addition to this recent intrusion, a relatively ancient intrusion of the Saloum River water which had reached at least as far as 20 km south from the source was evidenced. The high molar ratio values of Sr/Cl and Sr/Ca indicate an additional input of strontium presumably derived from carbonate precipitation/dissolution reactions and also via adsorption reactions. The variable B concentrations (7-650 microg/L) found in the groundwater samples were tested against the binary mixing model to evaluate the processes of salinization which are responsible for the investigated system. Sorption of B and depletion of Na occur as the Saloum river water intrudes the aquifer (salinization) in the northern part of the region, whereas B desorption and Na enrichment occur as the fresh groundwater flushing displaces the saline waters in the coastal strip (refreshening). In the central zone where ancient intrusion prevailed, the process of freshening of the saline groundwater is indicated by the changes in major-ion chemistry as well as B desorption and Na enrichment. In addition to these processes, stable isotopes reveal that mixing with recently infiltrating waters and evaporation contribute to the changes in isotopic signature.     

Hydrochemical investigation on the clastic and carbonate aquifers of Kuwait

The field pH and contents of basic cations, anions, total alkalinity and other aqueous species have been measured in 89 groundwater samples collected from clastic sediments and carbonate aquifers of Kuwait. The mean molar ratio of Mg²⁺/Ca²⁺ is 0.63 and 0.48 for the carbonate and clastic aquifers respectively, indicating that the groundwater of the carbonate aquifer is in equilibrium with calcite and dolomite, the calculated mean PCO₂ of the clastic and carbonate aquifers suggesting a deep closed environment system. The clastic aquifer is supersaturated with respect to calcite, aragonite, quartz and chalcedony, undersaturated to near-saturated with dolomite and undersaturated with respect to gypsum, anhydrite and halite, whereas the carbonate aquifer is supersaturated with respect to dolomite, calcite, aragonite and quartz but undersaturated with anhydrite, gypsum and halite. The salinity of both aquifers increases in the direction of flow. The water types are dominantly NaCl and Na₂SO₄ in the clastic aquifer and Na₂SO₄, CaSO₄ and NaCl in the carbonate aquifer. Electronic Publication