Classification of black decorative stones from Warangal District, Andhra Pradesh, India

Despite abundant usage of Indian black decorative stones, no systematic approach has been made to study their properties. In this paper an attempt has been made to study the geoparametrical and geotechnical properties of the stones from ten active quarries in the Dornakal-Balpao-Venkatayapalem, Warangal district, Andhra Pradesh, India, including colour, hardness, texture, grain size, composition, macro- and micro-joints, specific gravity, dry density, moisture content, water absorption, porosity, uniaxial compressive strength (compressive strength), tensile strength, shear strength, rebound hardness number, point load strength index and rock hardness. Regression analyses were undertaken; the correlation coefficient obtained from ranged from 0.80–0.96. On the basis of these results, a new classification system for black decorative stone is proposed with four classes ranging from I (very good) to IV (poor). It is appreciated that the classification is based on limited data but it provides an important advance with implications for improving the present ad hoc, often wasteful quarrying philosophy in India.     

Understanding the climate sensitive architecture of Marikal,a village in Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh,India

Architecture and climate are engaged in a happy marriage in any indigenously developed settlement. We documented and analysed a vernacular settlement, Marikal in composite climatic region of A.P., as part of a large development project. Marikal’s form and structure are a result of centuries of evolutionary process and knowledge transfer, reflecting a set of varying physical and nonphysical determinant forces such as climate and geology, religion, socio-cultural values, economics, technology and administrative factors. It is a closely knit fabric of small clusters of dwellings comprising of thick white walls, heavy roofs, small windows and narrow streets. Many house typologies are identified. The house plans essentially vary in size, shape and detailing, but not in their climate sensitivity. They are in great harmony with the occupation/activities of the occupant. The occupants adaptively synchronize their activities with the spatial environmental qualities of the space.     

Effect of wastewater disposal and extent of industrial pollution in and around Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

 Kanpur City has become a large industrial complex with nearly 800 industries. This has increased the social and economic status of the city, but these industries are also causing severe environmental pollution. In addition to smoke, dust and pollutant gases, water pollution through the discharge of industrial effluents is causing severe problems. The pollutants include As, Cr, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Pb and Zn, which are considered as toxicants. The presence of various ions, such as Fe²⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl^– and SO₄ ^–, significantly changes the water characteristics, including its ability to stain, its hardness and salinity. The presence of some other oxidizing and reducing agents, such as ammonia, nitrite, nitrate and sulphate, causes problems such as depletion of oxygen, foul odour and microbial growth. The extent of pollutants in the wastewater discharge from different types of industries and the hazards of these pollutants in wastewater are discussed. Received: 24 June 2000 · Accepted: 29 August 2000     

Assessment of environmental impacts of Sarda Sahayak Canal irrigation project of Uttar Pradesh,government, India

This paper analyses the results of studies conducted on the Sarda Sahayak Canal Irrigation Project of the U.P. Government, which was commissioned in 1974. The operation of this canal has created serious problems of environmental degradation in the command area. The problem of seepage started right from the beginning and at present it has created a situation which may be one of its type in the history of canal irrigation. The seepage in 1984 has damaged 385 villages, 13,677 houses and 2200 catties. Mature natural forests containing Sal trees have been killed by canal seepage over a vast tract. The canal seepage and high water table rendered vast tract waterlogged. Due to continuous waterlogging in the command area, the problems of Malaria, Filaria skin diseases and pest are very common. The canal is operating, and this report should help in assessing the environmental changes such as management of land, water and forests for sustainable development.     

Assessment of arsenic exposure from groundwater and rice in Bengal Delta Region, West Bengal, India

Arsenic (As) induced identifiable health outcomes are now spreading across Indian subcontinent with continuous discovery of high As concentrations in groundwater. This study deals with groundwater hydrochemistry vis-à-vis As exposure assessment among rural population in Chakdaha block, West Bengal, India. The water quality survey reveals that 96% of the tubewells exceed WHO guideline value (10 μg/L of As). The groundwaters are generally anoxic (−283 to −22 mV) with circum-neutral pH (6.3 to 7.8). The hydrochemistry is dominated by HCO₃⁻ (208 to 440 mg/L), Ca²⁺ (79 to 178 mg/L) and Mg²⁺ (17 to 45 mg/L) ions along with high concentrations of As_T (As total, below detection limit to 0.29 mg/L), Fe_T (Fe total, 1.2 to 16 mg/L), and Fe(II) (0.74 to 16 mg/L). The result demonstrates that Fe(II)-Fe(III) cycling is the dominant process for the release of As from aquifer sediments to groundwater (and vice versa), which is mainly controlled by the local biogeochemical conditions. The exposure scenario reveals that the consumption of groundwater and rice are the major pathways of As accumulation in human body, which is explained by the dietary habit of the surveyed population. Finally, regular awareness campaign is essential as part of the management and prevention of health outcomes.     

Arsenic groundwater contamination and its health effects in the state of Uttar Pradesh (UP) in upper and middle Ganga plain, India: a severe danger

This communication presents results of our 2-year survey on groundwater arsenic contamination in three districts Ballia, Varanasi and Gazipur of Uttar Pradesh (UP) in the upper and middle Ganga plain, India. Analyses of 4,780 tubewell water samples revealed that arsenic concentrations in 46.5% exceeded 10 microg/L, in 26.7%, 50 microg/L and in 10% 300 microg/L limits. Arsenic concentrations up to 3,192 microg//L were observed. The age of tubewells (n=1,881) ranged from less than a year to 32 years, with an average of 6.5 years. Our study shows that older tubewells had a greater chance of contamination. Depth of tubewells (n=3,810) varied from 6 to 60.5 m with a mean of 25.75 m. A detailed study in three administrative units within Ballia district, i.e. block, Gram Panchayet, and village was carried out to assess the magnitude of the contamination. Before our survey the affected villagers were not aware that they were suffering from arsenical toxicity through contaminated drinking water. A preliminary clinical examination in 11 affected villages (10 from Ballia and 1 from Gazipur district) revealed typical arsenical skin lesions ranging from melanosis, keratosis to Bowens (suspected). Out of 989 villagers (691 adults, and 298 children) screened, 137 (19.8%) of the adults and 17 (5.7%) of the children were diagnosed to have typical arsenical skin lesions. Arsenical neuropathy and adverse obstetric outcome were also observed, indicating severity of exposure. The range of arsenic concentrations in hair, nail and urine was 137-10,900, 764-19,700 microg/kg, and 23-4,030 microg/L, respectively. The urine, hair and nail concentrations of arsenic correlated significantly (r=0.76, 0.61, and 0.55, respectively) with drinking water arsenic concentrations. The similarity to previous studies on arsenic contamination in West Bengal, Bihar and Bangladesh indicates that people from a significant part of the surveyed areas in UP are suffering and this will spread unless drives to raise awareness of arsenic toxicity are undertaken and an arsenic safe water supply is immediately introduced.     

Deterioration of coastal groundwater quality in Rameswaram Island of Ramanathapuram District, Southern India

A study was carried out in the South-West, North-East and North-West segments dividing the local area of Rameswaram Island to characterize the physico-chemical characteristics of 87 groundwater samples which include pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, total alkalinity (TA), calcium hardness (CH), magnesium hardness, total hardness (TH), chloride and fluoride. Heavy inorganic load in majority of the groundwater samples has been estimated due to the salinity, TDS, TH and chloride beyond the threshold level which substantiates the percolation of sea water into the freshwater confined zones. The Water Quality Index and Langeleir Saturation Index have also been calculated to know the potable and corrosive/incrusting nature of the water samples. The results are interpreted based on statistical tools. Greater than 80% of the samples were found to have exceeded the limit of WHO drinking standard especially in TDS, CH, TA and chloride. The signature of salt-water intrusion is observed from the ratio of Cl/CO₃ ^2? + HCO₃ ^? and TA/TH. A proper management plan to cater potable water to the immediate needs of the people is to be envisaged.     

Health-based targets for greywater reuse in residential schools in Madhya Pradesh,India

In line with developments in the water reuse sector, this paper applied quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) techniques to seven greywater reuse systems used for recycling shower water for toilet flushing. The objective of the study was to establish a scientific basis for health-based greywater targets for India. It involved qualitative risk assessments and quantitative microbiological analysis using Enterococci, thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) and coliphage indicator organisms. Four conclusions are drawn from this study. Firstly, the systems indicated a low risk and high quality, and secondly that low levels of risk were present in systems, resulting in the recommendation of guideline of 5000 cfu/100 mL rather than 10 000 cfu/100 mL for greywater utilised for direct toilet flushing. Thirdly, disability adjusted life years (DALYs) are a useful indicator of risk for evaluating the performance of a greywater reuse system in addition to chemical/microbiological indicators DALYs, and finally that TTC are a useful surrogate microbial indicator for analysis of greywater in developing countries with limited analytical facilities.     

Environmental crisis in Bhilai,an industrial complex of Madhya Pradesh,India

The emergence of Bhilai on the industrial scene of India and its growth and development as an industrial complex are a significant landmark in the history of industrialization of the country. In our paper an attempt is made to identify the emerging environmental problems associated with the infra‐structural facilities of the study area, a backward and neglected poverty stricken part of the country. In the area, air, water and noise pollution arise from the emissions of the iron and steel plants. There is no provision for sewage and water disposal. Industrial waste is another serious problem for the complex, e.g. slags from the steel furnaces. Bhilai also suffers from slums and overcrowding. Bearing these facts in view, some suitable suggestions for the proper environmental planning of the area are made.     

Assessment of concrete quality using non-destructive techniques,Ghatghar project,Maharashtra, India

The Ghatghar Pumped Storage Scheme involves the construction of two roller compacted concrete dams. Cracks were observed when the 14.5m × 478 m dam across the river Pravara near Ghatghar village, Maharashtra, India was about 4.1 m high on the right side and 3.3 m high on the left side. A total of 1,206 measurements were made using seismic refraction, sonic tomography and ultrasonic testing to assess the competency of the dam, covering a volume of 5029.86 m³. The ultrasonic testing conducted on five RCC cores and an equal number of rock cores recovered from the body of the dam and site indicated a velocity of 4,050–4,250 and 3,900–4,100 m/s, respectively. The velocities obtained from the seismic refraction and tomographic survey ranged between 3,375 and 4,625 m/s and from the ultrasonic survey 3,800–4,300 m/s. The velocity range obtained from both the seismic (refraction and tomographic) and ultrasonic methods indicates good to excellent quality concrete and the results show the visible cracks have not affected the integrity of the dam.      

陕南民居转型发展设计适宜性途径初探

结合陕南民居的概念,通过对陕南传统民居在聚居点选址、建筑平面布局、建筑单体构造和建筑色彩等方面进行了反思和分析,系统的阐述了陕南民居在转型发展中应该注意的问题,为陕南民居的转型发展提供了思路。     

Industrial fluorosis in cattle and buffalo around Udaipur, India

Signs of dental discolouration, difficulty in mastication, bony lesions, lameness, debility and mortality in domesticated animals, reared around superphosphate fertiliser plants located approximately 15 km north of Udaipur, Rajasthan prompted us to investigate for the occurrence of fluorosis. Out of 166 animals clinically examined, the prevalence rate was 17.4% (4/23) in calves below 1 year of age, 37.2% (16/43) in cattle between 1 and 3 years, 61.3% (46/75) in cattle above 3 years and 72% (18/25) in buffalo above 1 year. Dental fluorosis was common in buffalo compared to cattle of all the age groups. Fluoride levels in fodder and water, consumed by the animals were much higher than the recommended permissible limit. Mean fluoride concentrations in serum and urine were 1.53 +/- 1.27 and 26.4 +/- 6.17 mg l(-1) in calves below 1 year of age, 0.56 +/- 0.17 and 26.2 +/- 3.86 mg l(-1) in cattle of 1-3 years, 0.49 +/- 1.13 and 27.5 +/- 4.63 mg l(-1) in cattle above 3 years and 0.60 +/- 0.07 and 28.6 +/- 4.73 mg l(-1) in buffalo over 1 year, respectively. The values were significantly (P < 0.01) higher than those of control animals kept over a 15-km distance from the factories. Fluoride concentrations in the environmental sample collected from the affected locality were 534.4 +/- 74.9 mg kg(-1) in fodder, 1.19 +/- 0.29 mg l(-1) in pond water and 0.479 +/- 0.351 mg l(-1) in tube well water. It was concluded that the consumption of fodder and water contaminated by the fumes and dusts emitting from superphosphate fertiliser plants resulted in the development of chronic fluorotic lesions in cattle and buffalo.     

苏南地区某地下室外墙防水构造及质量处理措施

以苏南地区某地下室外墙防水施工为例,从防水材料、基层处理、节点处理等方面,分析了该建筑外墙防水的施工方法,并提出了防水涂料施工质量要求,以达到良好的防水效果。     

Geophysical investigations for groundwater in a hard rock terrain,Salem district,Tamil Nadu,India

The main aim of a geophysical investigation in a hard rock region is to solve different hydrogeological problems like depth of water table, basement rock, thickness of weathered zone/formation, structural and stratigraphic conditions relevant to groundwater conditions, and permeability of aquifers. A total of 54 vertical electrode soundings were carried out by Schlumberger electrode arrangement to signify complete lithology of the study area and interpretation was carried out by using curve matching techniques. From the study, 65 % of area is dominated by ‘A’ type curve indicating increasing resistivity with depth and 17 % by ‘K’ type representing a high-resistivity layer sandwiched between two low-resistivity layers. Four layer cases were also noted in 12 % of the study area indicating gradation between the weathered and fractured layers as a semi-weathered zone. Greater thickness has been identified in the weathered zone at the contact of peninsular gneiss and charnockite regions. The maximum, minimum, mean, and arithmetic mean were plotted and identified higher background resistivity values in charnockite. The overlay of maximum and minimum curves for different layers signifies variation of weathering intensity with depth or the presence of weaker zones. In general, lithology plays a significant control over weathering of rocks and groundwater potential.     

Application of factor analysis in the assessment of groundwater quality in a blackfoot disease area in Taiwan

Factor analysis is applied to 28 groundwater samples collected from wells in the coastal blackfoot disease area of Yun-Lin, Taiwan. Correlations among 13 hydrochemical parameters are statistically examined. A two-factor model is suggested and explains over 77.8% of the total groundwater quality variation. Factor 1 (seawater salinization) includes concentrations of EC, TDS, Cl(-), SO(4)(2-), Na(+), K(+) and Mg(2+), and Factor 2 (arsenic pollutant) includes concentrations of Alk, TOC and arsenic. Maps are drawn to show the geographical distribution of the factors. These maps delineate high salinity and arsenic concentrations. The geographical distribution of the factor scores at individual wells does not reveal the sources of the constituents, which are instead, deduced from geological and hydrological evidence. The areas of high seawater salinization and arsenic pollution correspond well to the groundwater over-pumping area. Over-pumping of the local groundwater causes land subsidence and gradual salinization by seawater. The over-pumping also introduces excess dissolved oxygen that oxidizes the immobile minerals, releases arsenic by reductive dissolution of arsenic-rich iron oxyhydroxides and increases the arsenic concentration in water. The over-extraction of groundwater is the major cause of groundwater salinization and arsenic pollution in the coastal area of Yun-Lin, Taiwan.     

Effects on groundwater flow and groundwater quality of a waste disposal site in Noordwijk,The Netherlands

The effects of a waste disposal site in Noordwijk on the groundwater flow and groundwater quality were investigated. Special attention is given to the extension of pollutants in the aquifer. Several boreholes were made and groundwater has been sampled and analysed. Measurement of electrical resistivity and an electromagnetical investigation were carried out. Already beneath the landfill pollution was found on the fresh- salt water boundary at about 40 meters -l.s. A very large vertical flow component due to density flow could be calculated. Local flow patterns indicate an all-sided migration of pollutants. Short-circuit flow caused by the drilling of boreholes can effect the quality of groundwater seriously.     

Airborne viable, non-viable, and allergenic fungi in a rural agricultural area of India: a 2-year study at five outdoor sampling stations

The information on airborne allergenic fungal flora in rural agricultural areas is largely lacking. Adequate information is not available to the bioaerosol researchers regarding the choice of single versus multiple sampling stations for the monitoring of both viable and non-viable airborne fungi. There is no long-term study estimating the ratios of viable and non-viable fungi in the air and earlier studies did not focus on the fractions of airborne allergenic fungi with respect to the total airborne fungal load. To fill these knowledge gaps, volumetric paired assessments of airborne viable and non-viable fungi were performed in five outdoor sampling stations during two consecutive years in a rural agricultural area of India. Samples were collected at 10-day intervals by the Burkard Personal Slide Sampler and the Andersen Two-Stage Viable Sampler. The data on the concentrations of total and individual fungal types from five stations and 2 different years were analyzed and compared by statistical methods. The allergenicity of the prevalent airborne viable fungi was estimated by the skin-prick tests of >100 rural allergy patients using the antigenic fungal extracts from isolates collected with the Andersen sampler. The ranges of total fungal spore concentration were 82-2365 spores per cubic meter of air (spores/m3) in the first sampling year and 156-2022 spores/m3 in the second sampling year. The concentration ranges of viable fungi were 72-1796 colony-forming units per cubic meter of air (CFU/m3) in the first sampling year and 155-1256 CFU/m3 in the second sampling year. No statistically significant difference was observed between the total spore data of the 2 years, however, the data between five stations showed a significant difference (P<0.0001). No statistically significant difference existed between stations and years with respect to the concentration of viable fungi. When the data of individual allergenic fungal concentrations were compared between stations and years, no statistically significant difference was observed in all cases except for Aspergillus japonicus and Rhizopus nigricans, which showed significant difference in case of stations and years, respectively. The ratios between the total fungal spores collected by the Burkard sampler and the viable fungi collected by the Andersen sampler from all sampling stations ranged between 0.29 and 7.61. The antigenic extracts of eight prevalent viable airborne fungi (A. flavus, A. japonicus, A. fumigatus, Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Curvularia pallescens, Fusarium roseum, and R. nigricans) demonstrated >60% positive reactions in the skin prick test. These selected allergenic fungi collectively represented 31.7-63.2% of the total airborne viable fungi in different stations. The study concluded that: (i) a rich fungal airspora existed in the rural study area, (ii) to achieve representative information on the total airborne fungal spores of an area, the monitoring in multiple sampling stations is preferable over a single sampling station; for viable fungi, however, one station can be considered, (iii) the percentage of airborne fungal viability is higher in rural agricultural areas, and (iv) approximately 52% of the viable airborne fungi in the rural study area were allergenic.     

高速公路小面积病害处治质量控制

以石安高速公路的大修工程为例,介绍了在大修工程中小面积病害处理的要点,分析了施工质量关键点,介绍了施工过程中的控制方法,并进行了详细阐述,以提高高速公路的质量。     

Study of the impact of land use and hydrogeological settings on the shallow groundwater quality in a peri-urban area of Kampala, Uganda

A study to assess the impacts of land use and hydrogeological characteristics on the shallow groundwater in one of Kampala's peri-urban areas (Bwaise III Parish) was undertaken for a period of 19 months. Water quality monitoring was carried out for 16 installed wells and one operational protected spring to ascertain the seasonal variation. The aspects of hydrogeological setting investigated in the study were the subsurface unconsolidated material characteristics (stratigraphy, lithology, hydraulic conductivity, porosity and chemical content), seasonal groundwater depths and spring discharge, topography and rainfall of the area. Both laboratory and field measurements were carried out to determine the soil and water characteristics. Field surveys were also undertaken to identify and locate the various land use activities that may potentially pollute. The results demonstrate that the water table in the area responds rapidly to short rains (48 h) due to the pervious (10(-5)-10(-3) ms(-1)) and shallow (<1 mbgl) vadose zone, which consists of foreign material (due to reclamation). This anthropogenically influenced vadose zone has a limited contaminant attenuation capacity resulting in water quality deterioration following the rains. There is widespread contamination of the groundwater with high organic (up to 370 mgTKN/l and 779 mgNO-3/l), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs) and faecal streptococci (FS) (median values as high as 126E3 cfu/100 ml and 154E3 cfu/100 ml respectively) and total phosphorus (up to 13 mg/l) levels originating from multiple sources of contamination. These include animal rearing, solid waste dumping, pit latrine construction and greywater/stormwater disposal in unlined channels leading to increased localised microbial (faecal) and organic (TKN/NO-3) contamination during the rains. The spring discharge (range 1.22-1.48 m3/h) with high nitrate levels (median values of 117 and 129 mg/l in the wet and dry seasons) did not vary significantly with season (p=0.087) suggesting that this source is fed by regional base flow. However, the microbial quality deterioration observed in the spring discharge after a rain event (median values of 815TTCs cfu /100 ml and 433 FS cfu/100 ml) was attributed to the poor maintenance of the protection structure. Identification and selection of appropriate management solutions for the protection of shallow groundwater in informal settlements should not only be based on water quality problems and the causal physical characteristics as demonstrated by this study, but also institutional and socio-economic factors.