APPLICATION OF RESEARCH ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN LA NDSCAPE PLANNING

Landscape planning adjusts spatial structures and functions by altering the types of land use / land cover and the patterns of landscapes, and thus further impacts ecosystem services. This paper examines the impacts of landscape planning on ecosystem services and draws the conclusion that the control over the types of land use / land cover, the altering of landscape patterns, and the adjustment of landscape functional characteristics could change the type, quality, and performance of ecosystem services, respectively. Through an overall review on the application of ecosystem service evaluation, spatial mapping, and scenario simulation, this paper further concludes their roles in landscape planning: ecosystem service evaluation provides means to ensure scientific landscape planning; spatial mapping serves as a basis to the decision making; and scenario simulation visualizes all kinds of possibilities for an optimal choice. At the same time, such applications in landscape planning practices, ranging from green space planning, ecological conservation redline planning, land use planning to biodiversity protection planning, are exemplified. Finally, this paper summarizes existing research findings and limitations and proposes that future research is expected to study the relationship between landscape planning and ecosystem services, to build a dynamic composite planning framework that can improve ecosystem services, and to propel the research on the tradeoff-and-synergy among ecosystem services in landscape planning.     

生态系统服务评估在美国城市绿色基础设施建设中的应用进展评述

城市绿色基础设施提供着雨洪管理、空气净化、气候调节、能耗节约、提供生态栖息地以及文化功能等重要的生态系统服务。近年来,在美国国家环保局、美国风景园林基金会等相关组织机构的倡导下,生态系统服务监测和评估被结合到城市绿色基础设施的规划建设之中。本文分析了城市绿色基础设施生态系统服务的研究进展和评估方法,并归纳了现今美国生态系统服务评估在绿色基础设施建设中的应用方式,包括为政策制定提供量化依据、为项目认证提供评价标准、以及为项目建设提供收益分析3种类型。最后,本文探讨了对我国绿色基础设施建设的相关启发,包括加强城市绿色基础设施生态系统服务研究和实践的结合,重视城市绿色基础设施生态系统服务的整体性和协同性,以及完善基于生态系统服务的城市绿色基础设施绩效监测体系3个方面。     

融合生态服务与游憩功能的城郊绿色基础设施用地系统规划 研究 ——以眉山市岷东新区非集中建设区为例

城郊绿色基础设施兼具城乡生态 服务与游憩功能,孤立或对立审视此二功能 会导致过度开发或机械被动保护,有机融合 则会促进城郊自然环境资源的高效保护与利 用。结合文献研究与案例分析,论文详细阐 释了融合生态服务与游憩功能的绿色基础设 施用地规划理念及技术方法：一、目标定位, 融合资源保护、生态服务、游憩休闲等复合目 标;二、现状分析,甄别绿色基础设施用地 保护要素与空间格局;三、功能设置环节,因 地植入维护要素系统自然生态过程的游憩功 能;四、用地组织层面,带动游憩产业发展的 同时提升其支持、供给、调节、文化四大生态 功能服务水平。     

武汉中心城区生态系统服务额外需求 量化评估——缘起绿色基础设施供需错配

生态系统服务从产生到使用是一个动态流动过程,分别对应着生态系统服务的供给与需求,然而在城市化过程中,人口的聚集及绿色基础设施的破碎导致城市生态系统服务供需失衡极为严重。当生态系统服务供给无法满足需求时,则存在生态系统服务额外需求。通过量化评估生态系统服务的额外需求,将为绿色基础设施的精确供给提供决策依据。以武汉中心城区为例,以街区作为基本单元,选择合适的环境质量标准作为额外需求阈值,对以下4项生态系统服务额外需求进行量化评估与空间制图:空气净化、雨洪调节、温度调节和游憩服务,并采用熵值法求得各项服务的权重,叠加得到综合的生态系统服务额外需求。最终评估结果可作为武汉中心城区绿色基础设施优先实施区域与类型的规划依据。     

Financing the future of green infrastructure planning: alternatives and opportunities in the UK

With the formation of the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government in 2010, the funding of local government in the UK changed fundamentally. Through an austerity approach to development, local planning authorities (LPAs) have been required to make significant budgetary savings, raising questions over what services are legally and morally dispensable. One service severely impacted has been green space (green infrastructure) management. In many locations, this has generated negative responses, as the proposed cuts are perceived as decreasing the liveability of urban areas. In response, LPAs are engaging in an examination of how they can manage development to more effectively fund green infrastructure provision. Such debates draw on a range of options from public, private and community funding sources, creating further complexity within LPA financing. To explore these options, this paper discusses the appropriateness of different funding mechanisms proposing a multi-option approach for the long-term management of green infrastructure.     

Infrastructure networks and red–green patterns in city regions

Landscape ecology challenges the urbanisation processes and the activities of the infrastructure sectors. Infrastructure networks have a strong impact on the development of cities and landscapes. This impact is often positive in an economic sense but can be negative in respect of natural or recreational functions of city and countryside. The challenge for spatial planning is to locate infrastructure lines in order to safeguard the conditions for the less dynamic functions in and around the urban regions. This paper analyses the impact of network patterns on urban development patterns and on green patterns, taking the history of the Randstad Holland as an example. In history the central peat area of this region was hardly accessible. This fact has led over the course of time to a unique spatial pattern: the major infrastructure lines and the major urban settlements are situated on the rim of a Green Heart. This creates a high-quality setting for the economy and the urbanisation of more than 6 million people as well as for natural and agricultural functions. Such a combination of urban elements and infrastructure around a green core can also be found on other scale levels and in other regions. Constraints on access often correlate with restricted urbanisation and with a sustainable position for the green elements. In those cases that such a restraint is chosen deliberately, often five phenomena are visible: (1) Polarity: a spatial polarity between less dynamic and more dynamic functions. (2) Decentrality: a side position of the main infrastructure and urban centres and a central position for the green functions. (3) Equality: equilibrium in extension of urban and rural elements. (4) Continuity: the green areas are part of larger scale networks. (5) Formality: planning policies couple the planning of infrastructure and dynamic urban activities to the development of the less dynamic, green functions.Together, these five elements create a special approach of spatial planning that can be applied on various scales. It is possible to use these elements as a concept, a design tool to create sustainable conditions for the ‘green’ functions in and around city regions. Based on some examples, suggestions are made for a strategy for urban-rural (re-)development aiming at high-quality urban life and for the natural environment, in and around urban regions. Sustainable spatial patterns demand a planning approach that combines the planning of infrastructure and urban activities with the planning of their green counterpoint.     

Moving forward in implementing green infrastructures: Stakeholder perceptions of opportunities and obstacles in a major North American metropolitan area

Urbanization poses both challenges and opportunities for the management of urban ecosystems globally. In the Greater Montreal Area (GMA), a major North American urban area where green infrastructure (GI) implementation is in its early stage, there are challenges in maintaining provision of ecosystem services due to urban expansion and climate change impacts. In response, stakeholders in the GMA are trying to further integrate the GI concept into planning practices and have participated in focus groups to discuss various approaches to implementing the GI concept. This paper addresses stakeholder perceptions of the opportunities and obstacles related to natural ecosystem management in the GMA. We discuss the way in which participants perceive the prospect of the GI concept to influence discourse and policy about environmental planning. We found plural perspectives on GI yet there was a broad consensus regarding problems in bringing planning tools in line with socio-ecological processes. This research provides a novel contribution by showing how the concept of GI informs narratives about metropolitan green space and environmental planning. The narratives of most research participants emphasised: 1) that efforts to protect and enhance the urban ecosystem should be approached within a coherent social and ecological framework at the scale of the metropolitan area, and 2) that GI planning needed to rely on collaborative and participatory approaches to enhance ecosystem services at all scales of the GMA.     

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON THE LANDSCAPE PERFORMANCE OF DESIGNED ECOLOGIES THROUGH A FIELD OBSERVATION OF SALINE-ALKALI SOIL IMPROVEMENT IN QIAOYUAN PARK OF TIANJIN

The current rapid urbanization leads to a degeneration in natural ecosystems whose regulating, purification, and production services have been seriously damaged. Landscape architecture focusing more on landscape functions and processes in this context is significant to urban environment improvement, by creating more urban parks and green spaces to provide ecological services as benefits rather than cities' burdens. Therefore, Yu Kongjian defined Designed Ecology as a constructed ecosystem or a system of interactions between living creatures (including human beings) and nature by human design, also ecological processes formed by landscape architecture and planning, and an interdisciplinary, cross-scale, and empirical research in a form of landscape. This research examined the landscape performance of saline-alkali soil amelioration in Qiaoyuan Park designed with the Designed Ecology principles by ecological experiments. The results prove that through micro-topography design, the park's constructed ecosystem significantly drains away salt and alkali to the lower areas of the site, both within the pond and across the whole pond system, achieving its design goal. This case study provides models for similar ecological landscape design of urban parks and green spaces.     

Understanding and Planning for Organized Community Sport in Public Parks: A Case Study of Policy and Practice in Perth

Emerging shortages of community sporting facilities in Australian cities have led to calls for increased provision of playing fields through public park and open space planning processes. Drawing on a broad literature review and a specific case study of metropolitan Perth, this paper evaluates the value of organised sport as a function of contemporary public parks before proposing policy and practice to ensure that such an increase complements broader urban planning agendas. An analysis of the evolution of public park planning shows that, while the provision of organised sport was the primary function of public parks in the middle of the twentieth century, contemporary park planning is characterised by the embrace of broader ecological planning concepts such as green infrastructure and ecosystem services. These broader concepts are then applied to understand the value of organised sport held within public parks, including its unique benefits and notable limitations when considered alongside other forms of outdoor recreation. With these limitations in mind, this paper concludes by identifying existing and future policy and practice that can help to ensure that demand for community sporting facilities in new residential areas can be met in a manner that complements this ecological role for local parks.     

基于绿色基础设施的城市空间增长设定路径及其杭州应用

以解构增长主义主导下的城市空间增长现实境况为研究背景,针对当前城市空间增长的设定路径在应对生态服务功能的确定性和偶然扰动的不确定性方面所扮演的双重“被动防御”角色,通过韧性与绿色基础设施的概念结合,重构基于绿色基础设施设定城市空间增长的韧性进程:将绿色基础设施视作城市空间增长刚性约束的绝对前提;在此基础上,根据城市空间增长同生态服务功能的适应状况,提供多种弹性引导的空间选择而非限制选择,以此实现“刚性约束同弹性引导的共轭协同”这一空间管控的核心目标,并促使已有设定路径由“被动防御”向“主动反制”的角色转变.基于上述理论框架,组合绿色基础设施评价与最小累积阻力建构GIA-MCR城市空间增长模型,诠释“刚性约束同弹性引导的共轭协同”在技术方法层面的具体落实.杭州的应用研究表明:由该模型设定的城市空间增长能够精准避开中高生态服务功能区域、有序引导城市开发在适宜空间范围内展开;该模型可辅助城市开发边界等空间管控的规划决策支持并配套相应政策工具,以此建立以“空间一张图”为核心的城市空间增长实施管理体系.     

基于元胞自动机模拟城市扩张下的绿色基础设施布局演变与内涝风险评估——以武汉市为例

武汉作为中国中部地区城镇化发展最为迅速的城市之一,提供重要生态系统服务功能的绿色基础设施面临建设用地扩张下的空间置换、总量缩减、结构破碎等问题。以武汉市绿色基础设施雨洪调蓄功能为切入点,通过遥感影像解译结合地形、土地利用等数据对武汉市域内的绿色基础设施进行空间格局及水文区位分析;通过构建模拟城市扩张的元胞自动机模型,整合城镇建设用地增长的发展引导约束条件与空间控制约束条件作为运算规则,计算转换概率来模拟城市的扩张;以此分析城市扩张所带来的不同类型绿色基础设施的格局演变与内涝风险。研究发现在城市扩张过程中武汉市水文关键区位敏感性高且易被侵占,建成区将面临雨洪调蓄功能降低所带来的内涝风险。城市扩张与用地的博弈难以避免,绿色基础设施作为发挥城市雨洪调蓄功能的天然载体,其结构完整性对于城市水文过程良性循环起本底作用。保护在城市发展过程中敏感性高、易被侵占且具有关键水文功能的区域,根据风险程度建立多级控制体系,对于武汉市绿色基础设施保护及内涝防治具有重要意义。     

基于区域生态系统健康评估的土地利用 规划研究——以北京市为例

健康的区域生态系统能持续提供生态系统服务,是实现城市可持续发展的基础。同时,城市土地利用直接影响区域生态系统的健康状态,因此如何在健康视角下合理规划与协调城市土地利用方式,成为风景园林与城市规划领域的重点研究课题。以北京市为例,基于2007和2017年的土地利用类型,采用CA-Markov模型对2027年自然发展、快速发展、多目标保护和森林建设4种土地利用情景进行预测,统筹生态系统的物理健康与功能健康评价,构建区域生态系统健康评估框架,探讨4种土地利用情景下更健康的城市土地利用规划新方法。结果表明,与2017年健康状态相比,北京市快速发展情景的区域生态系统健康评估结果呈现负值,其他情景下均呈现良好的增长趋势,森林建设情景下增长最为明显。坚持生态优先、绿色发展、集约化发展建设用地和加强森林建设,可大幅提升区域生态系统的健康状态。     

Eight Reflections on Quantitative Studies of Urban Green Space: A Mapping-Monitoring-Modeling-Management (4M) Perspective

Green space is an important component in urban environment, providing considerable ecosystem services to our socio-economic-cultural activities. Metrics designed to capture green space provision, supply and demand, measuring availability, accessibility, and visibility have been widely adopted to gauge progress toward achieving sustainable development goals from local to regional scales. In this article, we offer eight reflections on quantitative studies of urban green space for mapping, monitoring, modeling, and management (4M) practices in landscape design and planning. The article’s objective is to stimulate fresh and innovative thinking in the conversion of data to interventions. Eight points are made: 1) Green space mapping should be characterized in a multi-attribute conceptual model, including quantity, quality, type, and structure; 2) green space mapping sources, methods, and uses vary by definitions, approaches, and scales; 3) phenology modifies seasonal quality and quantity of urban green space; 4) spatial and temporal green space data cubes will help realize the goal of near real-time monitoring of urban green space change; 5) green space coverage reveals green space supply, but green space exposure can capture effective demand via modeling the supply–demand relationships of human–green space; 6) green space exposure measures should account for spatial, temporal, and social differences; 7) greening optimization by landscape architects and planners should consider both biophysical, biodiversity, and health benefits; and 8) urban green space management should be strategized with a long-term view. Finally, we advocate data–science–decision support systems that can help guide and promote 4M practices of urban green space. These points of reflection have broad implications for research, practice, and theory of urban green landscape design, planning, and management, and altogether constitute a set of principles that can guide scientists, policy makers, and practitioners toward strategizing optimal 4M of urban green space.     

Systems,habitats or places: evaluating the potential role of landscape character assessment in operationalising the ecosystem approach

A key challenge for research and practice is to understand how the ecosystem approach can be rolled out in spatial planning, management and decision-making. Any framework used to apply the ecosystem approach needs to not only be environmentally coherent but also socially meaningful. Drawing on semi-structured interviews and case studies, this paper examines the potential role of one place-based approach, landscape character assessment, as a medium to ensure socio-ecological relevance in operationalising the ecosystem approach. Our findings show that although place-based approaches have value as frameworks for distilling the ecosystem approach into a manageable form, their ecological relevance is a subject of debate. However, the potential relationship between landscape character, function and ecosystem services presented a powerful pathway for operationalising the ecosystem approach. The ecosystem approach may, in turn, complement landscape character assessment by providing a framework for exploring the functional dimension of landscape condition.     

基于生态源地与生态廊道优先级评估的生态安全格局构建与优化——以石家庄都市区为例

【目的】构建生态安全格局（ESP）是改善区域生态系统结构和功能,维护生态系统服务的有效措施。近年关于ESP的构建与优化逐渐成为研究热点,但对其中关键因子——生态源地与生态廊道的深入分析仍是一项挑战。【方法】以石家庄都市区为例,基于生态资源综合评价,结合最小累积阻力（MCR）模型构建区域ESP,并根据优先级矩阵,确定其中生态源地与生态廊道的优先级。【结果】结果表明：1）石家庄都市区生态源地的主要用地类型为林地、农田与水体;2）高优先级的生态源地与生态廊道主要集中在西部浅山区与滹沱河沿岸,是需要重点关注与保护的区域。【结论】通过对生态源地与生态廊道优先级排序后进行区域ESP优化,可有效界定区域生态系统维护过程中的关键区域,为未来国土空间规划与生态文明建设深入了解区域生态资源提供助力,并为相应的绿色空间规划提供指导。     

基于国家自然科学基金面上项目的城市绿色空间前沿研究分析： 热点与方法

城市绿色空间在提供舒适人居环境方面发挥着重要作用。通过CiteSpace进行文献分析,探讨近年与城市绿色空间相关的国家自然科学基金面上项目产出成果的热点内容与相应技术方法,总结存在的不足。结果表明:近年的研究主要集中在调节微气候、缓解大气污染、生态系统服务评估、景观格局、城市绿地率及促进公共健康6个方面,前两者以实测与模拟为主要研究方法,中间三者分别以模型评估、指数计算、差异分析和空间分析为主流方法,后者则以模型计算、问卷和结构方程模型为主导方法;公园城市、国土空间规划为城市绿色空间研究的新兴领域,有持续的研究前景。以此满足风景园林视角下的国家重大发展需求,为城市绿色空间的后续研究提供思路引导与方法借鉴。     

城市—区域尺度的生物多样性保护规划途径研究简

本文研究探讨了空间尺度与生物多样性保护层次的对应关系,认为在城市一区域这一特定尺度上,景观多样性是生物多样性宏观保护的关键层次,基于城市一区域整体环境的系统性和差异性以及生物流与过程,建立城市一区域框架内的生物多样性保护格局。寻找“最优景观格局”就是生物多样性保护规划的核心任务之一,并藉此总结出城市一区域尺度的两种空间类型及其生物多样性保护规划的两种途径：第一种是针对城市基质的区域空间类型提出了“城乡景观格局优化途径”,该途径包括有“集聚间有离析”、“景观安全格局”,“绿色基础设施”3大模式及5大格局优化策略;第二种是针对自然基质的区域空间类型提出的“自然保护区途径”,该途径包含有“保护区圈层”与“保护区网”2大模式以及6大保护区设计原则。     

县域景观游憩服务评价——以四川省武胜县为例

游憩发展潜力是乡村振兴的重要维度,系统评价区域游憩服务并将其用于土地利用决策是引导区域可持续发展的重要策略。 以四川省贫困县武胜县为例,尝试从县域尺度对游憩服务进行建模与制图评价,从游憩吸引力和游憩使用度两个维度对县域游憩资 源进行系统评价,并分析其空间异质性。结果显示,高吸引力 - 高使用度的游憩服务主要集中于人口密度较高、具有特色景观的城 镇中心及其周边;河流沿线属于高吸引力的游憩服务区,具有开发潜力;县域景观中近四成面积不具有游憩开发的价值。县域游憩 服务的评估与制图既是描绘生态系统对人类福祉重要性的有效手段,又为规划设计决策提供依据,是区域可持续发展前瞻评价。     

Planning and the Challenges of the Metropolitan Landscape: Innovation in the Netherlands

The physical appearance of the Netherlands is rapidly changing. The land of prosperous towns and villages embedded in rich, flat and open agricultural land is turning into a metropolis. A distinctive quality of this metropolis is the mix of highly urbanized centres and open, green areas that come in different shapes and sizes. But how to design an appropriate planning system for this environment? Mixing “red” (urban) and “green” (rural) land uses, for instance, now becomes problematic as Dutch spatial planning has always focused primarily on the urban domain whereas planning of green areas has its origins in agricultural land consolidation policy. A genuinely integrated approach to the planning of built-up areas and green areas in the open spaces is a distant ideal in this setting. In addition, the regional administrative level, being so important for metropolitan spatial challenges, needs reinforcing. The authors make a plea for a reframing of the notion of spatial planning at the national and provincial geographical and administrative scale. It takes a new object for planning, design and analysis to do the trick. The traditional rural–urban opposition is traded for “metropolitan landscape”, a new image reflecting the integration of built-up and non-built-up distinctively urban and rural land uses. Planning for the metropolitan landscape requires a reassignment of duties and responsibilities among national, provincial and municipal governments and other stakeholders.     

城市滨水空间生态系统服务供需匹配的空间智慧

当前生态系统服务空间性研究大多在区域或城市尺度上开展,风景园林生态实践的指导性较为有限,研究聚焦场地尺度,旨在从生态系统服务供需视角看待城市滨水空间的发展与规划设计实践。在已有生态系统服务供需方面文献爬梳的基础上,提出影响需求的三大因素及其需求类型的划分方法,甄别影响城市滨水空间生态系统服务供给能力的核心指标,选取上海苏州河市区段进行实证研究,采取田野调查法、文献研究法,并基于GIS进行需求目标与供给能力的空间制图。通过拟合分析比对创新性地提出指导城市滨水空间生态实践的三大空间智慧:1)基于需求目标研判制定发展策略的空间智慧;2)分段分类型供给满足存量更新需求的空间智慧;3)生态系统服务供需平衡转向匹配的空间智慧,为城市滨水空间的生态实践提出理论依据、评价标准及技术支撑。