The emergence of city-regions and their implications for contemporary spatial governance: Evidence from Ghana

Over the years, urbanization has triggered complex spatial processes, such as the evolution of city-regions that defy traditional administrative regional boundaries. However, despite the growing body of research on city-regions, the evolution of this phenomenon and its implications for contemporary spatial governance remains a huge gap in urban planning literature, while approaches to their delineation have largely been restricted to commuting patterns data and approximations. This research examines the emergence of city-regions and their implications for contemporary spatial governance using Ghana as an illustrative case. In the process, inspired by Tobler's first law of geography and the concept of distance decay, the study engages a unique methodological approach that uses spatial mapping of rural-urban population continuum, transportation network, built-up patterns and GIS techniques for the delineation of city-region. The research finds a gap between the rapidly emerging spatial structure of Accra and the operational governance framework, as there is no provision in the latter for the planning and management of the evolving city-region which, territorially, spans multiple administrative regions. At the local context, while making the lagging spatial governance system more responsive to the dynamically evolving spatial structure, it is imperative that urban policy recognises city-regions, such as the Accra City Region (ACR), and their diverse opportunities; plan for them through joint development planning boards; and foster natural coordination even among local planning authorities across different administrative regions. At the global scale, the research practically illustrates that alternative methodologies based on spatial mapping and GIS techniques could provide useful insights into the study of city-regions.     

世界城市研究的转型、反思与上海建设世界城市的探讨

1950年代以后,新国际劳动分工的发展促进了全球经济的融合,在经济联系和互动的进程中形成了世界城市及世界城市网络,该领域成为国际学术界研究的重点。在对相关研究综述之后认为,世界城市研究越来越呈现多元化的特征;同时认为,传统世界城市研究具有"表征替代内涵"的嫌疑,包括:①仅关注高端服务业和高端城市,忽略了发展中国家制造业城市的快速兴起;②忽视了1990年代信息产业的兴起对全球经济的重大作用,包括知识经济时代知识、技术控制力的巨大作用,网络社会及浮现的信息化城市在世界城市体系重构中的作用等;③仅讨论自上而下的全球化力量对世界经济格局及世界城市体系发展的推动,却忽略了自下而上的本地化发展力量。最后认为,在以价值链组织生产的当今,制造业、服务业产业融合发展的态势越来越明显,城市-区域的功能联系日益紧密。具体到中国,社会经济整体仍处于工业化发展阶段,其城市经济发展与西方国家必然存在较大差异,城市-区域发展的背景亦决定了中国的世界城市建设必须赋予工业化的特性,并以上海市为例进行分析。     

Old Boys Down Home: Immigration and Social Integration in Halifax

Canadian cities are active competitors in the process of recruiting immigrants to help them increase diversity, improve their economies, and stimulate population growth. This study of Halifax, a small city in eastern Canada, suggests that some features which make the city-region attractive for inter-provincial migrants — such as the easy pace of life, perceptions of homogeneity, and tight social networks — affect the ability of international migrants to integrate in the community.     

全球城市区域及其发展策略

全球城市区域构建了全球化背景下城市/区域空间形态的新图景,许多城市密集地区正由区域性的空间演化为全球性的战略地域。面对全球化营造的激烈竞争环境,全球城市区域实施了积极应对的发展策略,主要包括区域复兴与营销、城市增长联盟、区域创新系统培育等等。本文将对这些重要方面做简要的评述。     

打造全球城市一区域的国际经验与借鉴

全球化竞争导致区域角色比国家更重要,以全球城市及其腹地有机联系形成的全球城市一区域在这一背景下应运而生,并成为较具实力的城市一区域及其他各类城市联盟的发展目标。本文通过分析纽约大都市区、伦敦都市圈和日本首都圈三大全球城市一区域的形成和发展机制,概括出全球城市一区域的四大共性特征：（1）中心城市的高等级性;（2）内部联系的紧密性;（3）所属国家强大综合国力的支撑性;（4）地理区位及软环境条件的优越性。基于此,提出我国要构建全球城市一区域,可在中心城市地位提升、自身经济结构转型、空间组织模式优化、社会保障体系和文化基础建设,以及人居和产业发展空间环境营造等五方面借鉴国际经验。     

Accra

Accra, the capital and major economic city in Ghana, is undergoing a major restructuring of much of its infrastructure and, more important, its physical form and appearance. Much of Accra’s growth parallels the introduction of liberalization policies since 1983. During this time the economic foci of the urban economy have been shifting away from the old colonial city to a more diffuse spatial organization. Uneven economic and residential development is associated with these trends. Accra is developing independently of any spatial urban planning. Present-day Accra is characterized by fragmented economic and residential geographies that if left unchecked will undermine sustainable urban development.     

Non-compliance with building permit regulations in Accra-Tema city-region,Ghana: exploring the reasons from the perspective of multiple stakeholders

Non-compliance is a major urban planning challenge in Ghana. Based on in-depth interviews with key stakeholders, the paper examines the complex and multifaceted factors that contribute to low or non-compliance with building permit regulations and planning standards in Accra and its environs. The paper uses the interviews to assess potential responses to the problem of non-compliance and its negative impacts. In doing so the paper contributes to wider knowledge and debate about the challenges of planning enforcement in contexts where regulatory power is weak and variable. Suggestions are made for overcoming barriers to planning compliance in the Accra-Tema city-region.

It is hoped that such an examination of the issues from multiple stakeholders’ perspectives will improve the knowledge of the dynamics of non-compliance so as to initiate effective planning strategies to address the problem. The paper makes specific recommendations to improve planning practices in the Accra-Tema city-region.     

Engineering a Millennium City in Accra, Ghana: The Old Fadama Intractable Issue

This article examines the attempted illegal forced eviction of residents in Old Fadama, Accra??s largest informal settlement. Firstly, it reviews the most recent newspaper articles and official government documentation, to demonstrate the instrumental portrayal of the settlement and its residents as nuisance, dangerous and unsanitary. It shows that the normative discourse of ??squatters?? and ??informality?? used by the municipal authorities situates Old Fadama??s residents within the sphere of illegality. As a result, residents are physically situated within, but conceptually outside of the boundaries of Ghanaian society, which serves to justify the eviction to the wider constituency, especially as the accompanying propaganda has resulted in the settlement being a ??no-go?? area for other residents in Accra due to fear of insecurity. Secondly, it explores the complex web of social and economic relationships between the settlement and Accra??s wider urban fabric that renders the simple dichotomies of planned and legal versus unplanned and illegal unfeasible. It argues that situating the emergence and expansion of Old Fadama in Ghana??s wider national migration patterns, as well as the country??s housing and urban planning policy history, and uncovering the settlements multiple relationships with Accra and Ghana??s governing structures as well as the city??s multiple economic networks provide an alternative reading of Old Fadama??s development and growth than that usually allowed for within this discourse of illegality and squatting used by the local authorities.     

世界巨型城市面临的挑战及其对策

在全球化时代，城市和城市地区的重要性日益提升。大都市发展引起了人们的普遍关注。我们在看到大都市特别是巨型城市对一国的重要作用的同时，不应忽视其发展过程中面临的挑战。在此基础上，依据可持续发展原则，利用公民社会各方面的智慧和力量，积极思考对策，进行制度创新，建设宜居城市，是必然的选择。     

On Reforming City Comprehensive Planning: From Viewpoint of Multi-Plan Integration

At the moment when many Chinese cities are undertaking the tasks of compiling new city comprehensive planning and carrying out the pilot work of multi-plan integration, this paper analyzes the relationship between the two tasks, and then reviews the role and contents, as well as the procedure of formulation, examination and approval of city comprehensive planning. The real meaning of multi-plan integration is to put multiple plans in one framework for coordinated operation, within which city comprehensive planning should be more strategy-oriented and be considered together with other plans, such as spatial development at the city-region level and structural management at the city and township levels.     

2000年以来珠三角巨型城市地区区域格局及变化

选取珠三角大城市地区作为实证研究对象,通过2005年分县(市、区)1%人口调查数据和五普分县(市、区)人口资料,对珠三角巨型城市地区当前区域格局,包括空间格局、经济格局进行分析,并对2000年以来的区域变迁特征进行解析,其主要方法包括主成分分析和聚类方法.研究结果表明:①整体上而言,珠三角巨型城市地区"核心-外围-边缘"三大地带空间格局依然显著.核心地带主要是分布在珠江口两岸,即传统的都市连绵区;外围地带则主要集中在广东省沿海地区:边缘地带则主要是广东省内陆地区.②在三大地带格局基础上,珠三角地区仍显示出一定的"多中心结构"特征;③2000年以来珠三角地区区域趋向总体而言呈现"核心一边缘强化"特征.多中心化态势虽有进展,但不显著,且主要集中在濒临连绵区和沿海的外围地带内,边缘地带则相对而言愈加"边缘化".     

中国特色的“边缘城市”发展：解析上海与北京城市区域向多中心结构的转型

在美国及西欧．有研究认为当今城市化在性质上已步八与过去传统郊区化不同的新阶段：居住郊区化之后,大量生产性服务业就业岗位也开始向郊区扩散,形成“边缘城市”;这种“后郊区化”现象使得城市内部的多中心结构开始向城市区域扩散。本文通过对北京的新城亦庄和上海边缘的昆山的研究,旨在揭示中国一些大城市区域中“边缘城市”的形成,及其背后的动力机制。最后文章认为跟西方后郊区化某些特征相似,中国“边缘城市”的形成也已超越了所谓郊区化的传统涵义,它代表了一种中国特征的城市多中心发展政治机制。     

Complex twist of fate: The geopolitics of flood management regimes in Accra,Ghana

Accra, the capital of Ghana, has been experiencing severe flood events since 1939, with the most affected often being the people living in vulnerable communities. Unfortunately, the flood management regimes by state agencies² have been limited to weak urban planning response in terms of demolition exercises, forced evictions or distribution of relief items. How successful have these regimes been? How have affected communities responded? What should be the urban planning response? These questions remain unanswered. This paper responds to these questions using cities as complex systems theory, and Agbogbloshie and Old Fadama communities in Accra as case studies. This study used a qualitative research approach comprising agency and community interviews, and document reviews. Findings indicate that flood management regimes have been ineffective due to city planning authorities³ and state agencies' limited recognition of the urban space as a complex system. As a result, constructs, responses and contexts of urban floods are determined based on land use legality and acknowledgment of urban communities by city planning authorities, evidence of urban planning, and community initiatives. Recommendations to improve the situation are proffered.     

Some observations on orderly development in an emerging city

Recent expression on the differences and similarities between cities in developed and emerging nations has perpetuated the notion that rural-urban migrants simply wander into cities of developing countries without purpose and that their pattern of settlement is unsystematic, and furthermore that they have little chance of significantly improving their economic status. This paper undertakes to determine whether some order is apparent in Accra, Ghana--an emerging city that is perhaps typical of other expanding cities in developing countries.Analysis of population density gradient and upward mobility among the masses, and employment of regression analysis are used to establish whether order exists in Accra's development process. The results indicate that settlement patterns appear to be in accordance with patterns observed in developed nations and upward mobility in the city appears to be substantial.This paper is based on chapters 6, 7, and 8 of the author's doctoral dissertation. The author is indebted to Professor Frank Mittelbach for helpful suggestions and comments. The research reported herein was undertaken by the author while conducting a study of urban land use and residential consumption in Accra, Ghana. During that time, he was a Research Fellow in the Department of Economics, University of Ghana, Legon. The research was supported by grants from the United Nations Association of the United States of America (Ralph Bunche Fellowship), African-American Scholars Council, American Institute of Real Estate Appraisers, UCLA Graduate Student Patent Fund, and the UCLA Graduate Advancement Program.     

湖北安陆:实施清洁乡村工程 改善人居环境

湖北省安陆市有387个行政村,4234个自然湾,全市总人口62.4万,其中农业人口51.7万人。近年来,他们按照“政府主导、农民主体、社会参与、部门服务”的工作思路,以村庄整治为切入点,以基础设施建设为突破口,以改善农村人居环境为主攻方向,以建设社会主义新农村为长远目标,大力实施清洁乡村工程,取得了明显成效。     

The planning of late colonial village housing in the tropics: Tema Manhean,Ghana

This paper examines the planning, physical development, and housing in Tema New Town, an appendix of the newly created Tema industrial and harbour city, located on the northeastern part of Accra in the Greater Accra Region in Ghana. The city and its appendage were designed and built during the 1950s, as the country was rapidly approaching political independence. Tema, originally an old Ga-fishing village, became a significant part of a much larger and ambitious scheme, known as the Volta River Project proposed as part of Kwame Nkrumah's domestic policy, embracing multifaceted and multidimensional development projects. These projects were to serve as a symbol of ‘progress’ and were part of Ghana's desire for modernization as it emerged from a colonial past. The related schemes were largely funded as a result of the British Colonial Development and Welfare Acts, and this paper investigates the implementation of this policy and the effect that it had on physical planning and provision of architectural solutions in Ghana.     

Analyzing barriers of Smart Energy City in Accra with two-step fuzzy DEMATEL

The prevalence of Smart Energy City (SEC) has over the years been seen as a preemptive measure in dealing with many energy problems faced by cities. Like other cities, Accra faces several barriers on its way to achieve SEC. This research seeks to identify possible barriers hindering Accra as a city from becoming a SEC and prioritizing these barriers based on both importance with consideration of interactions between barriers using a two-step Decision Making, Trial and Evaluation Laboratory under fuzzy set environment i.e. two-step fuzzy DEMATEL. For Accra, the results indicate that market barriers are the most important barriers while limited access to capital has the highest global importance score in the whole SEC barriers system. Besides, technology barriers, policy barriers and market barriers are found as cause barriers and high cost of technology dispatches more impact on other barriers in technology barriers category. High interest rate and unstable currency, inadequate infrastructure requiring huge investments, insufficient legal and regulatory framework, high cost of technology and lack of information about cost and benefits of renewable energy technology are deserved to be paid more attention since they have both high important and cause indexes. The result is to enhance strategic decision making since this combination of methods deals with the possible human sentiments in decision making and also organizes barriers into cause and effect groups based on their interactions, with the cause groups been critical since their presence can give rise to effect group barriers.     

Portland, Oregon

Portland, Oregon took its initial growth as a port and regional metropolis serving the Columbia River basin and the Pacific Northwest. It remains a regional transportation, finance, and service center, to which has been added a substantial electronics industry. The city and its region are best known for innovative policy initiatives dealing with urban planning, regionalism, growth management, and community development and revitalization. The city-region is served by the only elected metropolitan government in the United States. That government, Metro, has authority to structure regional spatial planning and also administers an urban growth boundary to maintain compact and efficient urban form. Development within the City of Portland has been directed since the 1970s by an alliance of downtown business interests and older middle class neighborhoods that have benefitted from a strong urban core. Much of city policy and grassroots effort from the 1990s has focused on the challenge of extending the benefits of this alliance to lower-income neighborhoods through community development and affordable housing efforts.     

Functionalism and representationalism in contemporary urban agendas: a Scottish perspective on city-region branding

The turn to city-regionalism in Scotland is a consequence of the policy and political assertion of the importance of cities in the new territorial economy of a devolved state. Moreover, the developmental rationale for city-regions rests on the stronger functional realignment of economic growth, investment, housing and population patterns, and the interaction of diverse flows to realise agglomeration efficiencies. In planning and governance terms, the argument for city-regions involves a layered spatial intervention so as to secure intended institutional efficiencies and sustainable development. In practice, the city-region discourse is dominated by functional linkages and relations in factor markets. This paper questions whether this functional perspective is sufficient in socially reconstructing the city-region identity. Adopting the concepts of functionalism and representationalism from the place-branding literature, this paper considers what may be learned from a communicative logic that is relatively more sensitive to issues of interpretation and identity.     

Functionalism and representationalism in contemporary urban agendas: a Scottish perspective on city-region branding

The turn to city-regionalism in Scotland is a consequence of the policy and political assertion of the importance of cities in the new territorial economy of a devolved state. Moreover, the developmental rationale for city-regions rests on the stronger functional realignment of economic growth, investment, housing and population patterns, and the interaction of diverse flows to realise agglomeration efficiencies. In planning and governance terms, the argument for city-regions involves a layered spatial intervention so as to secure intended institutional efficiencies and sustainable development. In practice, the city-region discourse is dominated by functional linkages and relations in factor markets. This paper questions whether this functional perspective is sufficient in socially reconstructing the city-region identity. Adopting the concepts of functionalism and representationalism from the place-branding literature, this paper considers what may be learned from a communicative logic that is relatively more sensitive to issues of interpretation and identity.