Lock living: Urban sprawl in Mediterranean cities

“Lock living” refers to the importance of security design, consumed as a commodity, in the new suburban residential landscapes of Mediterranean cities. This article summarizes the process of urban sprawl that has developed in the cities of Southern Europe in recent decades. It presents the main consequences of this evolution, regarding changes in residential landscape. Mediterranean cities have been historically characterised by the archetypal image of density, urban complexity and social diversity. However, the increasing development of urban sprawl shows a very different urban scenario. Metropolitan spaces along the edges of the motorways and orbital ring roads are developing the type of residential landscape that was, until not so long ago, exclusively associated with the cities of the Anglo-Saxon urban tradition. New low-density residential areas show the proliferation of territories manifesting the same morphological criteria in different cities. From a cultural perspective, these standardised landscapes mean the production of residential areas designed on the basis of a thematization of the American suburb. This iconographic display dresses them up as private-urban-ecological-thematic paradises, as a residential landscape that becomes image more than territory and, in this sense, a commodity. This commodification process refers both to the residential space and the inhabitants’ lifestyles as the domestic landscape, created by private security, clearly shows.     

Land readjustment and metropolitan growth: an examination of suburban land development and urban sprawl in the Tokyo metropolitan area

Land Readjustment (LR) is a land development technique used in many countries around the world including Germany, Sweden, Japan, Taiwan and Korea. In essence it is a method whereby an irregular pattern of agricultural land holdings is re-arranged into regular building plots and equipped with basic urban infrastructure such as roads and drains. A percentage of each landowner’s holding is contributed to provide land for roads and parks, and for some plots to sell to pay the costs of the project. Its use has been particularly widespread in Japan where it is responsible for some 30% of the existing urban area, and is commonly referred to as ‘The Mother of City Planning’ (Toshi Keikaku no Haha). LR has for 20 years also been the focus of an international effort to introduce the technique to the developing countries of South East Asia. Although there is now a large literature on Japanese LR as a result of that project, however, virtually all of that literature focusses on practical aspects of how to implement projects, and on case studies of individual projects. Little attention has been paid to the role of LR in Japanese urban growth and urban planning at a city or regional scale, although such an examination is necessary to understanding LR in Japan, and Japanese urbanisation and urban planning more generally. The present research examines the role of LR in shaping patterns of urban development in the rapidly growing northern suburbs of Tokyo in Saitama prefecture. In particular, the claim commonly made by Japanese writers that LR prevents urban sprawl is examined. Sprawl and its prevention have long been a preoccupation of both Western and Japanese urban planners for aesthetic and efficiency reasons. However, it has recently gained importance as the critical interconnections between urban form and urban travel patterns, and greenhouse gas emissions and global warming have become more widely recognised. The case studies examine the role of LR in land development and urban growth at the regional scale (Saitama prefecture) and at the local scale (Urawa, Omiya and Ageo cities). GIS mapping and analysis of the case study areas, and interviews with planners and participants are used to examine the role and impacts of LR projects in suburban land development in Japan. The research suggests that while there are various impacts of LR projects because they are so widely used, in a range of different contexts, it is fair to say that LR projects contribute to increased sprawl at the regional scale, while largely failing to prevent it at the local scale.     

Gated communities as new forms of segregation in post-socialist Budapest

In the cities of East Central Europe high-status gated residential enclaves emerged after the collapse of communism symbolizing the new dimensions of social segregation brought about by the post-socialist transition. Due to the highly liberalised housing market and the infiltration of global capital the proliferation of gated neighbourhoods became possible. The aim of this paper is to analyse the role of gated communities in Hungary in general and in Budapest in particular. To find out the driving forces behind the gating phenomenon we apply the case study approach analysing the development of a typical gated neighbourhood in one of the suburban settlements of Budapest. During the research special emphasis has been placed on the attitude and behaviour of three types of stakeholders: the developers, local government and the homeowners. The Magdolna-völgy gated community reflects the contradictions that have characterised the transition of Hungary from single-party communist system to neo-liberal capitalism since 1990. The weak position of local municipalities as opposed to real estate developers can be related to the decentralised, deregulated public administration system and the laissez fair attitude of neo-liberal state. Gated neighbourhoods became symbols of polarisation and conflict within local societies. The case study demonstrates that the affluent section of society can efficiently segregate themselves from the rest of people, and can successfully privatise public spaces and create safe and privately controlled spaces behind the fences.     

Planning trajectories in post-socialist cities: patterns of divergence and change

This article explores the new planning regimes and planning processes in post-socialist countries and their ability to influence the spatial transformation of cities. It views planning institutions as culturally embedded in the overall process of economic, social, and political transition, while recognizing the power of specific local imperatives and market pressures to shape their response. The research draws on empirical evidence in four countries and their capital cities to highlight the links between the transition to democracy, markets, and decentralized governance on the spatial transformation in post-socialist cities. The main argument is that the new planning institutions have different ability to direct these processes of change, depending on the legal framework, the availability of plans, and the institutionalization of the plan-implementation process. Despite the diverse mosaic of urban experiences in Prague, Riga, Belgrade, and Tirana, planning institutions are viewed as path dependent, influenced by a common socialist legacy. Further, changes in the exogenous environment – economic, social, and institutional – are perceived to be important sources of convergence, but tend to shape different planning responses and policy choices. The research explores these differences as well as the new patterns of spatial transformation in three principal domains: (1) spaces of production/consumption reflecting the economic transition; (2) differentiation in residential spaces associated with the social transition; and (3) new approaches to planning and service delivery resulting from the transition in governance. Central to the arguments in the article is that transition of this magnitude has created a complex urban world in which the patterns of divergence are going to become more explicit in the future, producing spatial and temporal differentiation among post-socialist cities.     

The governance of urban shrinkage in cities of post-socialist Europe: policies,strategies and actors

This paper presents results of an international comparative research project ‘Smart governance of shrinking cities in a European context’. In recent years, many European cities have experienced urban shrinkage (population decline). Whereas there has been a wealth of research into the governance of growing cities, little consideration has been given to the governance of and policy responses to shrinking cities, particularly in relation to the declining cities of post-socialist Central and Eastern Europe. The aim of this paper is to compare the governance responses to shrinkage in different national contexts and assess the policy responses applied. This is done through the comparison of case studies examining the governance of shrinkage in Leipzig (Germany), Bytom (Poland), Ostrava (Czechia) and Timisoara (Romania). Two different strategies have been identified. First, Leipzig – due to its inclusion in the (former Western) German welfare state – followed a reasonably holistic strategy implemented by strong public actors focused not only on economic growth, but also on tackling issues of falling housing demand and the need to strengthen the attractivity of city centre. Second, in Ostrava, Bytom and Timisoara strategies have been inspired by neoliberal thinking, denying the important role of public sector city planning and ignoring the fact of shrinkage. In these cities, the main reply to shrinkage has been to seek economic development through the attraction of private investment (especially FDI) into the cities and using pragmatically any EU structural funding.     

Developing land use geospatial indices (LUGI) for sprawl measurement in alpha cities: Case study of Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia

This study investigated an atomic level of sprawl measurement for Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan by developing a set of Land Use Geospatial Indices (LUGI). The components of LUGI include segregated land use, development planning consistency, urban density, strip and leapfrog development, that have been tested at Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan purposely to examine the urban sprawl phenomenon at the level of alpha cities. It was carried out based on geospatial result of changed detection at earlier stage. The urban sprawl measurement was analyzed according to the six Kuala Lumpur's strategic planning zone (SPZ). The results show that segregation land use and leapfrog indices are the prominent components that identified the sprawl development within most of SPZ in Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan, while the planning consistency, strip development and urban density are recorded as the indicators that less correlation have with sprawl. These measurements also indicate that alpha cities, as Kuala Lumpur, also facing issues on sprawl especially when it relates to land use planning. Finally, it proved that the development of LUGI could provide a decision support to create an effective long-term land use planning policies for sustainable urban landscapes development.     

Planning,competitiveness and sprawl in the Mediterranean city: The case of Athens

Competitiveness appears as a new element in the specific dynamics of the Mediterranean city. This paper explores the process of competitiveness at the local level, and the implications of the re-orientation of spatial planning priorities through case-study research. It looks at Athens, an example of a so-called ’winner’ city, which hosted successfully the 2004 Olympic Games. It examines by means of satellite imagery and GIS the changing patterns of land development in the metropolitan area. Olympics-related infrastructural investments, such as the new ring road and international airport, facilitated the efficient execution of the Games. Olympic development priorities, however, sidestepped stated planning directions on metropolitan growth. Evidence presented in this paper point to a land-use change trend in the urban periphery that takes the form of unordered expansion. Competitiveness agendas exacerbate unsustainable development tendencies, compromising future growth prospects.     

The space-time structure of land prices in Japanese metropolitan areas

This study aims to clarify the space-time nature of land price upheaval that Japanese metropolitan areas experienced in the late eighties. Long-term panel data of land prices for two major metropolitan areas were first compiled, based on the Public Notifications. The parameters of the cross-sectional land price functions calculated in the process suggest that the price formations in Osaka are approximately two to three years behind that in Tokyo. The space-time structure of land price changes within the Tokyo area was studied using one- and two-dimensional diffusion models, where monocentricity of fund supplies to the land market is assumed. It is concluded, regardless of dimensions, that heat conduction provides a good analogy for the space-time behavior of land market: diffusion coefficients suggest that the land price increase has propagated fastest towards north-north-east and south-south-west, and slowest along the orthogonal direction.The original version of this paper was read at the 42nd North American Meeting of RSAI, Cincinnati, 1995. The results are entirely revised reflecting the updated railroad network from 1985 to 90 and some corrections in land price data.Received: April 2001/Accepted: August 2003     

Urban sprawl and municipal budgets in Spain: A dynamic panel data analysis

Urban sprawl has recently become a matter of concern throughout Europe, but it is in southern countries where its environmental and economic impact has been most severe. This low‐density, spatially expansive urban development pattern can have a highly marked impact on municipal budgets. Thus, local governments may see sprawl as a potential source of finance, in terms of building‐associated revenues and increased transfers from upper tiers of government. At the same time, sprawl leads to increased levels of expenditure, as it may raise the provision costs of certain local public goods and requires greater investment in extending basic infrastructure for new urban development. What, therefore, is the net fiscal impact of urban sprawl? Do local governments consider the long‐run net fiscal impact of new urban growth or do they simply focus on its short‐term benefits, ignoring future development costs? This paper addresses these questions by analysing the dynamic relationship between urban sprawl and local budget variables. To do so, we estimate a panel vector autoregressive model using data for 4,000 Spanish municipalities for the period 1994–2005. Computed generalized impulse response functions show: (i) that sprawl considerably increases demand for new infrastructure; (ii) that the capital deficit generated by this new infrastructure is covered in the main by intergovernmental transfers and, to a lesser extent, by revenues linked to the real estate cycle; and (iii) that sprawl leads to a short‐term current surplus, as the increase in current revenues offsets the increase in current expenditures due to public service provision for new developments. Overall, these findings point to a moral hazard problem for local governments in which inordinate intergovernmental transfers and development revenues encourage excessive urban sprawl.     

Labour mobility between cities and metropolitan integration: The role of high speed rail commuting in Spain

Although the link between transport accessibility and the regional and local scope of labour markets has been widely studied in the literature, high speed rail (HSR) commuting is a relatively new user behaviour and little research has been done to date on labour migration derived from inter-regional HSR commuting. This paper contributes to the limited existing literature by analysing the evolution of the impact of HSR on labour markets in commuting relations. The added value of this research is that it is the first assessment of a panel data regression analysis taking account of HSR as a variable and using labour inter-regional mobility data (2002–2014). The model has been validated using the HSR commuting areas that converge in the metropolitan areas of Madrid, Barcelona, Seville and Malaga.Results have highlighted the complexity of the variables involved in the decision to commute by HSR. This complexity is linked to the causal relations between the most representative variables, namely unemployment rates and housing prices, which are more difficult to study during periods of economic crisis. The location of the HSR station has been revealed as a key indicator, and is even more significant (in the case of the Madrid functional area) than the actual availability of the HSR commuting services.     

Landscape metrics in the analysis of urban land use patterns: A case study in a Spanish metropolitan area

Urban growth patterns are characteristic of spatial changes that take place in metropolitan areas (MA). They are particularly prominent in more recently formed MAs, such as those in certain locations in Spain, where the structure of the traditional city has undergone sweeping changes. Given the capacity of spatial metrics to characterize landscape structure, these metrics can be a valuable instrument to identify growth patterns in MAs and to evaluate possible urban growth options, based on spatial characteristics.This article focuses on a medium-sized MA (Granada, Spain), and explores the use of spatial metrics to quantify changes in the urban growth patterns reflected in three future scenarios (2020). The scenarios were simulated with a model based on cellular automata, which reproduced three urban growth processes (aggregation, compaction, and dispersion) and four urban growth patterns (aggregated, linear, leapfrogging, and nodal). The scenarios were evaluated with metrics that quantified changes in the spatial characteristics of urban processes. Thus, for example, the NP and AREA_MN allowed us to characterize the decreased aggregation of high-density residential land uses in one scenario (S1) and the linear growth patterns in industrial land uses in another scenario (S2). In this way, spatial metrics were found to be useful for the evaluation of urban planning.     

Residential satisfaction among young people in post-socialist countries: the case of Serbia

Change in labor markets, extended education period and economic instability are negatively influencing housing accessibility of young adults. In post-socialist countries, such as Serbia, the biggest issues are the lack of supply volume and diversity of government subsidized housing, as well as the soaring prices of the newly built homes. As a result, young people are relying on the unregulated private rental market or their families to help them enter homeownership and acquire residential independence. There is an apparent need for affordable housing or policies which are catering to young people’s needs. The relevant body of research has been using residential satisfaction approach to provide an evaluation of the variety of housing available to young tenants. Hence, the primary purpose of this paper is to identify the factors which are significantly related or can predict the higher residential satisfaction and can be beneficial to the future policy makers in Serbia. To assess the residential satisfaction, following variables were included: socioeconomic characteristics, residential status, current housing characteristics, problems faced in the current dwelling, housing attribute preferences, privacy perception, dwelling proximity, neighborhood attachment, as well as overall residential satisfaction. The findings indicate that young people in Serbia had average levels of satisfaction with their housing despite the various problems and lack of privacy they were facing in the apartments. Higher residential satisfaction in this research was significantly predicted by the marital status of our respondents (single people were more satisfied), homeownership tenancy status, independent living arrangement, larger apartment size, greater levels of privacy and higher neighborhood attachment.     

Urban vegetational change as an indicator of demographic trends in cities: the case of Detroit

"In this study the author seeks to find whether changes in urban vegetation can be linked to urban social changes by using Detroit [Michigan] as a case study. Demographic trends in Detroit are analyzed in light of the increasing greenness in the city detected by recent satellite images. Robust relationships between greenness change and demographic factors associated with urban decay (population decline, an increase in poverty level, and an increase in vacant units) are found.... It is concluded that vegetation trends could be used as indicators of urban socioeconomic changes. A vegetation-based urban environmental quality index could therefore be developed to monitor physical and social changes in the cities."     

China's cosmetic cities: Urban fever and superficiality

During the last half of the 20th century, China experienced a period of extraordinary growth and change. In just over 50 years, the country has been transformed from a semi-feudal society dominated by foreign interests to an economic superpower wielding authority throughout the world. A particularly feverish pace of intense urbanization has been underway since the 1980s when the Chinese government instituted a program of economic reforms under the direction of Deng Xiaopeng, Mao Zedong's successor. This 'fever' is causing an increasing pace of physical change to the nation's urban landscape. While many industrial cities in western countries developed over a period of two centuries, China's cities have been radically transformed or established in just two decades. This paper frames the socio-economic and political context within which China's urban landscapes are now being modernized; its focus is on the post-Mao transitional period. Through a set of field observations the paper comments upon the effects of international design influences on the nation's urban landscapes. These observations raise important questions concerning the present development of the contemporary Chinese urban fabric. While it is possible to find examples of sensitive and appropriate approaches to the development of urban landscape design supported by enlightened policy-makers, such examples are rare and the norm is a 'cosmetic' approach to the formulation and implementation of local planning and design activities. Critical issues are raised and suggestions are made to help curb these activities that are increasingly destroying the ecological, socio-cultural and historic urban fabric of China's cities.