Source Rock Evaluation of The Eocene Shales in the Gökçesu Area (Bolu/Turkey)

Abstract

Hydrocarbon potential of oil shale samples from the Gökçesu basin in Bolu, Turkey, was evaluated on the basis of organic geochemical, organic petrographic, gas chromatography, and thin-layer chromatography techniques. Organic materials were found to be oil-producing type (Type I and II kerogen). Thermal maturities, that indicate diagenetic and early mature oil formation stage, were determined with pyrolysis (Tmax), production index (PI), and spore color index (SCI) analyses. The amount of organic material ranging between 0.21 and 15.89% reveals that the unit has variable source rock potentials from weak to perfect. The productivity of the basin was probably high and organic matter preservation was enhanced by a stratified water column. As the basin began to fill with sediment and become shallower, TOC and HI values declined, as the basin water was better oxygenated and preservation conditions declined. On the basis of geologic data, organic geochemical analyses and organic petrographic studies, organic facies of Eocene shales is of AB and B types.     

Income inequality and CO2 emissions in the G7, 1870–2014: Evidence from non-parametric modelling

We examine whether income inequality effected carbon emissions in what are now the world's wealthiest countries over the period 1870–2014. Employing a non-parametric panel estimation method with cross-sectional and time-varying coefficients, we find that the relationship between income inequality and CO₂ emissions is highly non-linear. In terms of signs and significance, the nonparametric coefficient function for income inequality is found to vary over the period 1870–2014. Income inequality exhibits a significant positive effect from 1870 to 1880 and a significant negative impact from 1950 to 2000 on CO₂ emissions. We also find that for extended periods between 1881 and 1949 and between 2000 and 2014, there is no significant relationship between the two variables.     

Source rock characteristics of Eocene bituminous shales and the effect of redox conditions on source rock potential,Nallıhan (Ankara) Central Anatolian Basin

Eocene bituminous shales within the Çamalan Formation of Paleocene-Eocene aged K?z?lçay Group exposing around Tekirler (Nall?han, Ankara), central Anatolia, were deposited under oxic and suboxic redox conditions and have Corg values in the range of 2.37 to 12.42 wt% (average 6.32 wt%). Samples are represented by Type-I kerogen and their maturity level is immature-early mature. Eocene bituminous shales are enriched in some major and trace elements, such as Ca, Mg, Si, Na, K, V, Ni, U, Th, P, S, Mo, Cu, Zn, Cr, Co, Pb, Au, Ag, As, Re, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Li, Sm, and Y. Paleoredox indicators (e.g., V/(V+Ni), Ni/Co, U/Th, V/Sc, Mo/Mn) yield that Eocene bituminous shales were mostly deposited oxic–suboxic conditions.     

R&D intensity and carbon emissions in the G7: 1870–2014

We examine the effect of research and development (R&D) intensity on carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in the Group of Seven (G7) countries since the nineteenth century using a non-parametric panel data model. Our estimates suggest that the relationship between R&D and CO₂ emissions is time-varying. The estimated time-varying coefficient function of R&D was negative for three quarters of the period studied, but was positive for a 35-year period (1955–1990) during the second half of the twentieth century. Our non-parametric local linear estimates show that the common trend functions gradually increased for the first 110 years (1870–1980), but then flattened out and showed a slight decrease for the next three decades.     

Nudges from school children and electricity conservation: Evidence from the “Project Carbon Zero” campaign in Singapore

Can children effectively nudge their parents to change their energy consumption behavior? This study sets up a quasi-experiment using the “Project Carbon Zero” campaign, an energy-saving contest in Singapore, to empirically test the effectiveness of school children nudges in bringing electricity conservation messages home and influencing behaviors of their families and neighbors. Based on the 2 km (km) home–school distance as an identification, our results show that families living within 2 km from participating schools (treatment group) used 1.8% less electricity at the block level than other families outside the 2 km school zone (control group) during the contest period. The electricity savings effects are persistent with an estimated marginal savings 1.6% in the post-campaign months. The results imply that policy makers and advocates for energy conservation could use school children nudges in public campaigns, instead of pecuniary interventions, to drive home behavioral changes in electricity conservation of families.     

The water ‘in’ and ‘around’ the building: the integration between bioclimatic,water-saving,and aesthetic aspects

By means of the experiences and the researches recently developed that show an integrated approach to the problem, it is possible to draw a series of indications for an ecological management of the urban water cycle. However, it is crucial to remember that the task of the architect is also to experiment an integration between eco-technologies for the re-naturalisation of the cycle of water and the image of the building. It is possible, actually, to use technologies related to water, tailored to the local conditions, for a result that integrates functionality, aesthetics, environment sustainability and thermal comfort.     

Winds of time: Lessons from Utö in the Stockholm Archipelago, 1990–2001

When investigating the success or failure of different wind power projects, it is essential to take into account how they were historically situated. This study focuses on attempts to develop wind power in an archipelago setting, at Utö in Sweden. It has been argued that the development of Swedish wind power slowed during the 1990s; by revisiting the early days of wind power, looking at resistance and support, and connecting success factors, this can be further investigated.Whereas earlier research pointed out institutional conditions and site-specific conditions as crucial for successful wind power development and acceptance, the picture can be made more complete by discussing how wind power projects are affected by time-specific historical conditions. In the case of Utö, these can partly be associated with a newly launched political support program that gave the project political legitimacy and added a “pioneering spirit” to the endeavor. Conversely, when wind power is not seen as “pioneering” or “experimental” any more, but as a mere industrial activity, other incentives may need to be offered to municipalities.     

Impacts of increasing bioenergy use on ecosystem services on nature and society exemplified in the German district of Görlitz

According to the energy policies of the European Union and Germany, the proportion of renewable sources for energy will be increased significantly in the coming years. The extended cultivation of energy crops can lead to conflicts, e.g. severe impacts on various ecosystem services based on groundwater, soils, biodiversity and the overall appearance of the scenery. Energy crops compete with food production, and moreover, they have various ecological, economic and social implications. There is a need for improved spatial planning instruments to regulate energy crop cultivation and to reduce the impact on ecosystems and landscapes. As economic, ecological and social aspects are involved, we see the concept of Ecosystem Services as a suitable tool to analyze the impacts of an increased growth of energy crops. This concept not only acts as a stimulus to finding appropriate solutions for enhancing sustainable land management on a regional level, but also provides a holistic view with which to address the demands for improved regulative frameworks.     

Recent advancements in the hydrogen value chain: Opportunities,challenges, and the way Forward–Middle East perspectives

This work highlights the recent advancements in the hydrogen value chain for the Middle East region by evaluating the feedstock, production technologies, storage options, delivery routes, and end-user applications. It discusses the national strategies for implementing the hydrogen value chain in the Middle East from 2020 to 2050. The challenges in the hydrogen value chain from techno-economic, safety, and social perspectives are also discussed in this study. Hydrogen production technologies are analyzed and compared. Steam-methane reforming has a high efficiency of 74% and a low hydrogen cost of $2.27/kg-H₂, making it the most dominant technology for hydrogen production. Electrolysis has a lower efficiency of 60% and a higher hydrogen cost of $10.30/kg-H_2, with more potential for further improvments.Furthermore, hydrogen storage options are compared. Compressed gas and cryogenic liquid options have the highest storage capacities of 39.2 and 70.9 kg/m³, respectively. However, they are not entirely safe due to the high flammability of hydrogen. Two hydrogen explosion incidents are also reported, the first explosion at the Fukushima nuclear power plant in 2011 and the second in the Hindenburg fire in 1937. Metal hydrides propose a safer and more effective option, but they are still under research and development. For H₂ transportation options, pipelines and cryogenic tankers are the most conventional and efficient options (above 99%). Ships have the largest capacity of 10,000 tons per shipment and the maximum investment costs of 465M - 620M$ per barge, but they are not feasible. This review paper will help researchers and practitioners analyze the hydrogen value chain in a more systematic way for further improvements toward more practical applications.     

Is the H2 economy realizable in the foreseeable future? Part III: H2 usage technologies,applications, and challenges and opportunities

Energy enthusiasts in developed countries explore sustainable and efficient pathways for accomplishing zero carbon footprint through the H₂ economy. The major objective of the H₂ economy review series is to bring out the status, major issues, and opportunities associated with the key components such as H₂ production, storage, transportation, distribution, and applications in various energy sectors. Specifically, Part I discussed H₂ production methods including the futuristic ones such as photoelectrochemical for small, medium, and large-scale applications, while Part II dealt with the challenges and developments in H₂ storage, transportation, and distribution with national and international initiatives. Part III of the H₂ economy review discusses the developments and challenges in the areas of H₂ application in chemical/metallurgical industries, combustion, and fuel cells. Currently, the majority of H₂ is being utilized by a few chemical industries with >60% in the oil refineries sector, by producing grey H₂ by steam methane reforming on a large scale. In addition, the review also presents the challenges in various technologies for establishing greener and sustainable H₂ society.     

Is the H2 economy realizable in the foreseeable future? Part II: H2 storage,transportation, and distribution

The goal of the review series on the H₂ economy is to highlight the current status, major issues, and opportunities associated with H₂ production, storage, transportation, distribution and usage in various energy sectors. In particular, Part I discussed the various H₂ (grey and green) production methods including the futuristic ones such as photoelectrochemical for small, medium, and large-scale applications. Part II of the H₂ economy review identifies the developments and challenges in the areas of H₂ storage, transportation and distribution with national and international initiatives in the field, all of which suggest a pathway for establishing greener H₂ society in the near future. Currently, various methods, comprising physical and chemical routes are being explored with a focus on improving the H₂ storage density, capacity, and reducing the cost. H₂ transportation methods by road, through pipelines, and via ocean are pursued actively in expanding the market for large scale applications around the world. As of now, compressed H₂ and its transportation by road is the most realistic option for the transportation sector.     

Coal,nuclear and renewable energy policies in Germany: From the 1950s to the “Energiewende”

Over the last 50 years, German energy policy has ranged from strong enthusiasm for both coal and nuclear energy to deep skepticism. The most dramatic changes with respect to energy policies have occurred as a response to nuclear accidents, yet the accidental and unintended effects of coal policies are also important in influencing the trajectory. The newly emerging climate debate prevented the coal industry from acting as a substitute for the diminishing share of nuclear power. In 2011 the conservative government announced the Energiewende (‘energy transformation’) and decided to reduce the amount of fossil fuels from 80% of the energy supply to 20% by 2050. However, while the verdict on nuclear was unequivocal with a final phase-out date of 2022, the share of coal in the electricity market did not decrease and the amount of carbon dioxide released into the air slightly increased from 2011 to 2013. There are growing conflicts over the immediate costs and practicalities of coal replacement. Consequently, the future of coal in Germany is still relatively open and contested.     

Decomposition analysis of the variations in residential electricity consumption in Brazil for the 1980–2007 period: Measuring the activity,intensity and structure effects

Introduced at the end of the 1970s to study the impacts of structural changes on electricity consumption by industry, index decomposition analysis techniques have been extended to various other areas to help in the formulation of energy policies, notably in developed countries. However, few authors have applied these techniques to study the evolution of energy consumption in developing countries. In Brazil, the few available studies have focused only on the industrial sector. In this article, we apply the decomposition technique called the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) to electricity consumption of the Brazilian residential sector, to explain its evolution in terms of the activity, structure and intensity affects, over the period from 1980 to 2007. The technique is sufficiently robust and flexible to perform this analysis, by disaggregating residential consumers by consumption classes and regions of the country. Among the main results is measurement of the impact of government programs for income transfer and universal service on variations in residential consumption, typical of developing countries.     

Energy transition,carbon dioxide reduction and output growth in the Swedish pulp and paper industry: 1973–2006

This study examines the historical relation between carbon dioxide emission and output growth in the Swedish pulp and paper industry from 1973 to 2006. We find that the industry achieved an 80 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emission, where most of the reduction took place before the implementation of active climate policy in 1991. Foremost energy substitution and also efficiency improvements contributed to the reduction. Growing prices of fossil fuel due to market price change and taxes and subsidies, explains most of the efficiency improvements and substitution. The study finds that energy transformation was coinciding with ongoing structural change in the industry during the 1970s and 1980s as well as a strong period of environmental adaption. We therefore suggest that the oil reduction was reinforced through the dynamics between the energy issue and an overall renewing process of the industry. This suggests a need to coordinate climate and environmental policy measures with the long-term industrial dynamics of structural change.     

Tyrannies of thrift: Governmentality and older,low-income people’s energy efficiency narratives in the Illawarra,Australia

Social scientists are arguing that energy policies should pay more attention to everyday life to address energy efficiency. Scholars are now positing that energy policy needs to move beyond essentialised understandings of people positioned as the problem and seek to involve household members as part of the solution. Joining this conversation, we explore the energy narratives of low-income people aged 60 years and over, living in private sector housing. Participants shared their energy efficiency stories during focus groups conducted in the Illawarra, Australia. The paper explores how Foucault's concept of governmentality may help inform energy efficiency programs by paying close attention to the way in which individual energy choices made under certain circumstances create who an individual becomes. Learning from participants, our governmentality analysis revealed the tyrannies of thrifty domestic energy conduct. We illustrate our argument drawing on the examples of practices relating to clothing and lighting. We outline how governmentality analysis can be used by researchers, policy makers and practitioners to assist people to safely negotiate energy efficiency in their domestic lives.     

Dynamic production,storage, and use of renewable hydrogen: A technical-economic-environmental analysis in the public transport system in São Paulo state,Brazil

This article proposes a calculation methodology that starts from the demand calculation to supply a fleet bus with renewable hydrogen based on the electrolysis process until the energetic, economic, and environmental analyses, involving all the processes of the productive chair. Also considering the dynamic behaviour of the following hydrogen processes: production, storage, and use. The simplified scheme of the proposed system configuration to be studied consists of the use of alternative and renewable sources of energy (solar-wind-biogas) to generate electrical energy in order to produce hydrogen from electrolysis of the water, which is stored in its gaseous state and subsequently redirected to a filling station to be used as vehicle fuel in buses. The results show that to feed one bus the hybrid system generates an average of 78,110 kWh/month with an installed capacity of 1101.905 kW, producing 1209.90 kgH₂/month through the electrolysis process from water. The results also show a range of electricity generation costs between 1.130 and 0.123 US$/kWh and H₂ production between 0.963 and 0.110 US$/kWh. Concluding that the application of renewable energies to produce hydrogen and electricity for the public transport sector is an attractive alternative in the future throughout the country, because the proposed system is technically, economically and ecologically viable.     

Accelerated growth of the sugarcane,sugar, and ethanol sectors in Brazil (2000–2008): Effects on municipal gross domestic product per capita in the south-central region

During the 2000–2008 period, there was a marked acceleration in the growth of the sugarcane, sugar, and ethanol sectors of Brazil, which are most active in the south-central region of the country. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of those sectors on the municipal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in the south-central region of Brazil during that period. To that end, we constructed a theoretical model, estimating its parameters with a generalized method of moments system estimator and using spatial dynamic panel data to estimate the direct (municipal) effects and indirect (regional) effects. The cumulative direct and indirect effects increased the real municipal GDP per capita by 1028 $ in the host municipalities and by 324 $ in each of their 15 closest neighboring municipalities. On the basis of our findings, we can infer that the effects of establishing a sugar mill or ethanol plant are most significant for the host municipality and persist for at least 10 years after operations begin. Our results also indicate that sugarcane production has a significant, positive impact on municipal GDP per capita, not only in the municipalities where that production takes place but also in neighboring municipalities.     

Hydropower,social priorities and the rural–urban development divide: The case of large dams in Cambodia

Hydropower investment is a priority in many developing countries, as a means to increase electrification rates and promote national development. However, neglect of dam-affected people's needs, can make them vulnerable to the multifaceted impacts of such projects. Using the case of Cambodia's first large dam, the Kamchay dam, this paper reveals social priorities of affected communities and institutional actors linked to environmental and social implications of large hydropower projects using a preference ranking method. Qualitative research revealed concerns among dam-affected communities which included energy access, livelihood changes, environmental impacts, access to natural resources and compensation. Results also reveal divergence between national and local priorities, which in turn brings about an unequal distribution of costs and benefits of the Kamchay Dam between urban and rural areas. The paper provides recommendations to policy-makers, NGOs and international organizations regarding governance issues, consultation processes and mitigation measures.