Low-cycle fatigue behavior of AA2618-T61 forged disk

The cyclic stress–strain response and the low-cycle fatigue life behavior of an aluminum alloy AA2618-T61 forged disk were studied. Fully reversed strain-controlled tests were performed at 200 °C in air at a constant total strain rate and under the total strain ranges of 0.5–0.9%. Specimens cut from longitudinal direction of disk displayed cyclic hardening or softening which was dependent on the total strain range. The variation of low-cycle fatigue life with plastic strain amplitude followed a single-slope Coffin–Manson power-law relationship. Fracture of the samples was predominantly ductile fracture of high density microdimples.     

Low cycle fatigue performance of DP900 steel under cyclic shear paths

In this study, a sheet fatigue shear test device is designed and applied to the low-cycle fatigue testing of DP900 with varying strain amplitudes within the range of 0.5%–6.0%. The microstructure is analyzed by using electron backscatter diffraction, and fracture surfaces are examined via scanning electron microscopy. Results indicate that the material exhibits cyclic softening behavior after the first two cycles of hardening, with a stable softening rate and a high damage evolution rate related to loading amplitude. The variation of the hysteresis curve in the cyclic process is shown. Total plastic strain energy absorbed increases as loading amplitude decreases and it reaches the peak at approximately 1%. The life prediction model based on plastic strain energy density and strain amplitude is verified to be suitable for the cyclic shear path. The influence of microinhomogeneity on the distribution of stress and strain, especially the deformation of martensite, is closely related to the bi-linear region of fatigue life curve.     

The effect of temperature on low-cycle fatigue behavior of prior cold worked 316L stainless steel

Low-cycle fatigue tests on cold worked 316L stainless steel were carried out at various temperatures from room temperature to 650 °C and tensile tests were conducted on the cold worked and solution-treated materials. At all test temperatures, the cold worked material showed the tendency of higher strength and lower ductility. Following initial cyclic hardening for a few cycles, cyclic softening behavior was observed to dominate until failure occurred during low-cycle fatigue deformation. The softening behavior strongly depends on temperature and strain amplitude. Several life prediction models were examined and it was found that it is important to select a proper life prediction parameter since stress and strain depend strongly on temperature. A phenomenological fatigue life prediction model is proposed to account for the influence of temperature on life. The model is correlated with the experimental results.     

Correlation between cyclic deformation behaviour and microstructure in a duplex steel between 300 and 773 K

Cyclic tests performed in the temperature range 300–773 K on duplex stainless steel DIN 1.4460 show that the cyclic stress–strain behaviour of this steel is strongly temperature dependent. At 300 and 473 K an almost constant peak tensile stress stage, is followed by a slight softening that continues up to failure in the case of 300 K, but by a secondary hardening at 473 K. Pronounced initial cyclic hardening followed by secondary hardening was the main feature of the temperature range between 573 and 723 K. At 773 K, after a weak hardening stage, a strong softening continues up to failure. The mechanical behaviour and the evolution of the microstructure were analysed, and the internal and the effective stresses were studied. It was found that the internal stress is responsible for the strong hardening that occurs in the intermediate temperature range and for the softening at 773 K.     

含Zr、Sc的Al-Zn-Mg-Cu合金的低周疲劳行为

利用透射电子显微镜和低周疲劳试验机研究了单级时效状态及回归再时效状态两种含Zr、Sc的Al-Zn-Mg-Cu合金的微观组织和低周疲劳性能。结果表明:单级时效基体析出相以η′相为主,晶界析出连续分布平衡相,并伴有晶间无析出带;回归再时效基体析出相略有长大,晶界析出相长大明显,无析出带变宽。低周疲劳加载条件下,合金在0.4%~0.7%外加总应变幅范围内表现出循环稳定性;在0.8%的应变幅下,呈现先软化后硬化。在0.4%~0.6%较低的外加总应变幅范围内,回归再时效合金表现出较高的低周疲劳寿命。两种状态合金的塑性应变幅和弹性应变幅与载荷反向周次之间均成直线关系,并可分别用Coffin-Manson公式和Basquin公式来描述。两种状态的合金的疲劳裂纹均萌生于试样表面,并以穿晶方式扩展。     

Wechselverformungskurven und Mikrostruktur bei spannungskontrollierter Zug-Druck-Wechselbeanspruchung von Ck 45 im Temperaturbereich 295 K ≤ T ≤ 873 K

Cyclic deformation curves and microstructure of SAE 1045 after stress-controlled push-pull loading in the temperature range 295 K ≤ T ≤ 873 K Stress-controlled cyclic deformation tests were performed with normalized SAE 1045 in the temperature range 295 K ≤ T ≤ 873 K. From the measured mechanical hysteresis loops cyclic deformation curves were determined, which are characterized by temperature dependent cyclic softening and hardening processes. Due to the cyclic deformation processes at any temperature distinct dislocation structures are formed depending on the stress amplitudes and the number of cycles chosen. In the whole temperature range and for all stress amplitudes the plastic strain amplitude was proved to be a suitable parameter to describe the actual fatigue state.     

Effect of strain rate on high-temperature low-cycle fatigue of 17-4 PH stainless steels

The effect of strain rate (10⁻², 10⁻³ and 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹) on the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior was investigated for 17-4 PH stainless steels in three different conditions at temperatures of 300–500 °C. The cyclic stress response (CSR) for Condition A tested at 300 and 400 °C showed cyclic hardening due to an influence of dynamic strain aging (DSA). An in situ precipitation-hardening effect was found to be partially responsible for the cyclic hardening in Condition A at 400 °C. For H900 and H1150 conditions tested at 300 and 400 °C, the CSR exhibited a stable stress level before a fast drop in load indicating no cyclic hardening or softening. At 500 °C, cyclic softening was observed for all given material conditions because of a thermal dislocation recovery mechanism. The cyclic softening behavior in Conditions A and H900 tested at 500 °C is attributed partially to coarsening of the Cu-rich precipitates. The LCF life for each material condition, tested at a given temperature, decreased with decreasing strain rate as a result of an enhanced DSA effect. At all given testing conditions, transgranular cracking was the common fatigue fracture mode.     

Life extension technology for steam pipe systems—I. Development of material properties

Material properties of A106B low-carbon steels were developed for life prediction analyses of steam pipes operated at elevated temperatures but in the sub-creep temperature range. Tensile, fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth rate and low-cycle fatigue properties were obtained on the piping steel at 24°C (75°F) and 288°C (550°F). The latter temperature corresponded to the highest operating temperature of nuclear plant steam piping. Increasing the test temperature from 24°C (75°F) to 288°C (550°F) decreased the yield strength and fracture toughness of the steel. Fatigue crack propagation rate properties at 24°C (75°F) and 288°C (550°F) were found to be comparable.

In the low-cycle fatigue tests, below a strain amplitude level of approximately 0.5%, cyclic softening was observed, while at higher strain levels, cyclic hardening was present. Based on the results of tensile and incremental-step fatigue testing, the strain-life curve was predicted. The predicted strain-life curve was found to be in agreement with the experimental result.

The fracture surfaces of fracture toughness specimens showed ductile fracture, while striations were observed on those of fatigue crack growth specimens. Fatigue striations were also observed on the fracture surfaces of low-cycle fatigue specimens. Fatigue initiation was associated with inclusions. It was shown that plastic straining in A106B steel could be detected by acoustic emission and by monitoring the eddy current response. These nondestructive evaluation techniques exhibit possibilities for in-situ monitoring of fatigue deformation.

While the development of material properties for the life prediction assessment of steam pipes is included in Part I of this paper, the establishment of a quantitative life prediction methodology and inspection criteria is contained in Part II. The developed life prediction methodology quantifies the effects of operating parameters on the remaining life of steam pipes using the material properties obtained in Part I.     

Effect of Sc addition on low-cycle fatigue properties of extruded Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr alloy

ABSTRACT

The influence of minor Sc addition on the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) properties of hot-extruded Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr alloy with T6 state was investigated through performing the LCF tests at room temperature and air environment. The results indicate that two alloys show cyclic stabilisation, cyclic hardening and cyclic softening during fatigue deformation. The addition of Sc can significantly enhance the cyclic stress amplitude of the alloy. Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr-Sc alloy shows higher fatigue lives at lower strain amplitudes, while has lower fatigue lives at higher strain amplitudes. For the two alloys, the density and movability of dislocations are related to the change of cyclic stress amplitudes. The existence of Al₃(Sc,Zr) phase can inhibit the appearance of cyclic softening phenomenon in the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr-Sc alloy.     

Cyclic deformation behaviour and lifetime calculation of Al‐3Mg‐Mn

Plastic strain amplitude, temperature and electrical resistance measurements were performed on the aluminium‐magnesium alloy Al‐3Mg‐Mn (AA5454) in recrystallised condition to describe and evaluate the cyclic deformation behaviour in detail. The endurance limit was estimated in load increase tests (LIT). In stress‐controlled single step tests at ambient temperature the cyclic deformation behaviour is characterised by pronounced cyclic hardening, which leads to a saturation state with a plastic strain amplitude of nearly zero. Due to far‐reaching cross effects of the applied measuring techniques, the plastic strain amplitude, the change of the specimen temperature due to cyclic plastic loading and the change of the electrical resistance show a strong interrelation with the underlying fatigue processes. A new lifetime calculation method “PHYBAL” on the basis of the plastic strain amplitude, the change of the temperature and the change of the electrical resistance yields an excellent accordance with experimentally determined lifetimes. Microstructural details were investigated by light and scanning electron microscopy.     

Effect of temperature and hold time on internal hardening behavior of a near α titanium alloy under cyclic deformation

In the present work, the study of dynamic strain aging (DSA) in near α titanium alloy Timetal 834 is reported in terms of internal hardening variables (kinematic and isotropic hardening variable). Total strain controlled low cycle fatigue tests have been conducted in air at 300 °C and from 400 °C to 500 °C at a temperature interval of 25 °C at nominal strain rates of 6.67 × 10⁻³ s⁻¹. The alloy exhibits gradual cyclic softening till failure at 300 °C, whereas, it exhibits initial cyclic softening followed by marked cyclic hardening from 400 °C to 500 °C. The cyclic hardening is attributed to DSA phenomena, resulting due to increase in isotropic stress component. The observed maximum peak stress ratio, lower fatigue life and minimum half-life plastic strain range at 450 °C indicates the maximum effect of DSA at that temperature. The fatigue life of tensile and compressive hold at 450 °C was observed to be inferior as compared to pure fatigue tests.     

FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH IN TWO ADVANCED TITANIUM ALLOYS UNDER CONSTANT AND VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING AT 25 AND 175 °C

Fatigue crack growth of β-21S and Ti-62222 in sheet form was investigated under constant and miniTWIST flight spectra loading conditions at 25 and 175 °C. Variable amplitude results were compared with life calculations performed using NASA/FLAGRO software and constant amplitude fatigue crack growth results. Single tensile overloads under constant Δ K were performed to evaluate load interaction effects. Constant amplitude results showed that fatigue crack growth resistance was slightly better for Ti-62222 than β-21S at 25 and 175 °C. The presence of crack closure under various conditions caused moderate shifts in the fatigue crack growth data. Under miniTWIST flight spectra loading, Ti-62222 exhibited a greater extension in life in comparison to the β-21S at elevated temperature, consistent with the NASA/FLAGRO calculations. This was also consistent with the single tensile overloads where 25 °C tests were comparable for both materials, while at 175 °C, delay cycles were greater by a factor of almost three for Ti-62222. Extensive secondary cracking in Ti-62222 at elevated temperature accounted for the extended fatigue lives.     

Effects of temperature on the low cycle fatigue behaviour of nitrogen alloyed type 316L stainless steel

Strain-controlled low cycle fatigue tests have been conducted in air between 298–873 K to ascertain the influence of temperature on LCF behaviour of nitrogen-alloyed type 316L stainless steel. A strain amplitude of ± 0.60% and a symmetrical triangular waveform at a constant strain rate of 3 × 10⁻³ s⁻¹ were employed for all tests. Crack initiation and propagation modes were evaluated, and the deformation and damage mechanisms which influence the cyclic stress response and fatigue life identified. The cyclic stress response at all temperatures was characterized by an initial hardening to the maximum stress, followed by gradual softening prior to attaining saturation. Temperature dependence of fatigue life showed a maximum in the intermediate temperature range. The drastic reduction in fatigue life at elevated temperatures has been ascribed primarily to the combined influence of dynamic strain ageing effects and oxidation-enhanced crack initiation, while the lower life at room temperature is attributed to detrimental effects associated with deformation-induced martensite.     

Comparison of low cycle fatigue behavior of 304 stainless steels induced by tensile and torsional prestrain

The effect of tensile and torsional prestrains on fatigue lives of 304 stainless steels is compared. The fatigue life as a function of prestrain amplitudes exhibits an ‘S’ curve, and the inflexion point of the S curve is affected by prestrain modes and cyclic strain amplitudes. An interesting phenomenon is that when the onset stress of secondary hardening reaches 300 MPa, intergranular martensite begins to be formed. Combining martensite distribution, fatigue life and cyclic stress responses, the onset stress of secondary hardening is proposed to reflect the location of martensite nucleation sites. Compared with tensile prestrain, torsional prestrain results in higher stress. In addition, higher prestrain and cyclic amplitudes also lead to higher cyclic stress and hence earlier nucleation of intergranular martensite. Furthermore, the influence mechanism of prestrain modes and cyclic strain amplitudes on the inflexion point of S curve is revealed.     

The effect of low cycle fatigue,ratcheting and mean stress relaxation on stress–strain response and microstructural development in a dual phase steel

This study examines the cyclic plastic deformation behavior and microstructural development of a dual phase steel in both symmetric and asymmetric cycling in strain and stress control modes. The low-cycle fatigue (LCF) and mean stress relaxation (MSR) tests show very similar fatigue lifetimes. However, fatigue lifetimes reduce and prominent accumulation of directional strain was observed in ratcheting. A microstructural analysis has revealed that the type of cyclic test carried out has a noticeable impact on the substructural development, and this has been correlated with differences in accumulated tensile strain. Electron backscatter diffraction investigation has shown larger in-grain misorientation for ratcheting specimen in comparison with LCF and MSR specimens. The orientation of ferrite grains was found to have very little effect on their substructural development, and strain localization commonly occurred in the ferrite at the ferrite/martensite interface.     

Low-cycle fatigue in Ni3Al-based alloys

The low-cycle fatigue properties of hot-extruded powders of a Ni₃Al-based alloy, IC 218, with nominal composition Ni-16.5Al-8.0Cr-0.4Zr-0.1B (at %) have been evaluated at room temperature. Tests were conducted under total strain conditions in a laboratory air environment. Results indicate that the low-cycle fatigue performance of the PM processed IC 218 nickel aluminide is superior to other structural alloys especially at higher strain amplitudes. These results are explained in terms of the high ductility of the fine-grain material and good crack growth propagation resistance in these alloys. Stress response curves for annealed IC 218 alloys indicate considerable cyclic hardening followed by cyclic softening. The onset of cyclic softening is found to occur at a constant cumulative plastic strain. The critical cumulative plastic strain criteria are verified for step-loaded IC 218 nickel aluminide coupons.     

FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF THREE VARIANTS OF THE ROLLER BEARING STEEL SAE 52100

Stress-controlled, low-cycle, push-pull fatigue tests were performed on three variants of the bearing steel SAE 52100 with slightly different compositions and heat treatments. The experiments demonstrated differences in the cyclic plastic behaviour of differently hardened steels (bainitically-hardened and martensitically-hardened, respectively), whereas the two martensitic variants, which differ in composition, behaved very similarly. Bainitically-hardened SAE 52100 steel exhibited initial hardening followed by cyclic softening above a stress amplitude level of 1200 MPa. In contrast, the martensitically-hardened variants showed a pronounced cyclic hardening. The deformation behaviour of the martensitically-hardened bearing steel in a monotonic tensile test and during the first cycles can be well understood on the basis of the transformation of retained austenite. This process leads to an onset of plastic deformation at lower stresses compared to the bainitically-hardened bearing steel. As a result of the subsequent cyclic hardening of the martensitic variants, the CSS curves are almost identical for the differently hardened conditions under investigation. Additional tests under pulsating compression documented that a high negative mean stress enhances the cyclic plasticity.     

Zum thèrmisch-mechanischen Ermüdungsverhalten von NiCr22Co12Mo9

On the Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue Behaviour of NiCr22Co12Mo9 The fatigue behaviour of the Ni-based alloy NiCr22Co12Mo9 (corresponding to Inconel 617) under combined cyclic thermal and mechanical “in-phase”- and “out-of-phase”-loading was investigated with a constant minimum cycle temperature of 473K and a constant total strain amplitude of 6,25% at maximum cycle temperatures T_o ranging from 873K to 1473K. It was found that the cyclic deformation behaviour and the corresponding development of the microstructure during the tests were mainly determined by the maximum cycle temperatures. With increasing T_o increasing recovery processes occurred accompanied by charakteristic changes in the microstructure which reduced cyclic hardening. In contrast, both maximum cycle temperature and cycle mode determined surface deteriorations, which were characterized by surface cracks, and fatigue life. At the highest temperatures during the in-phase-loading cycles, the occuring tensile stresses caused increasing amounts of intergranular damage with corresponding reductions of fatigue life.     

Low-cycle fatigue life of SiC-particulate-reinforced Al-Si cast alloy composites with tensile mean strain effects

The low-cycle fatigue behaviour of a SiC-particulate-reinforced Al-Si cast alloy with two different volume fractions has been investigated under strain-controlled conditions with and without tensile mean strains. The composites and the unreinforced matrix alloy showed cyclic hardening behaviour. The composite having a higher volume fraction of the SiC particles exhibited a more pronounced strain-hardening rate. For the tensile mean strain tests, the initial high tensile mean stress relaxed to zero for the ductile Al-Si alloy, resulting in no influence of the tensile mean strain on the fatigue life of the matrix alloy. However, tensile mean strain for the composite caused tensile mean stresses and reduced the fatigue life. The pronounced effects of mean strain on the low-cycle fatigue life of the composite compared to the unreinforced matrix alloy were attributed to the initial large prestrain causing non-relaxing high tensile mean stress in the composite with limited ductility and cyclic plasticity. Fatigue damage parameter using strain energy density accounted for the mean stress effects quite satisfactorily. Predicted fatigue life using this damage parameter correlated fairly well with the experimental life within a factor of 3. Moreover, the fatigue damage parameter indicated the inferior life in the low-cycle regime and superior life in the high-cycle regime for the composite, compared to the unreinforced matrix alloy.