Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment.

This study examines the relations among sex role traits and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment in order to test traditional and contemporary perspectives regarding the adjustment implications of stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations. Measures of sex role personality traits and behaviors and scales assessing depression, anxiety, and social maladjustment were administered to 235 college men and women. In addition, subjects completed measures of gender identity and gender adequacy. Contrary to traditional perspectives, androgynous men and women and cross-sex-typed women were no less well adjusted than sex-typed individuals. However, consistent with traditional perspectives, men who were low in masculine characteristics (and men and women low in both masculine and feminine characteristics) did appear less well adjusted on measures of depression, anxiety, and social maladjustment. Furthermore, low masculinity men had less secure gender identities. No such gender identity disturbances were found in women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type A behavior, age, and psychological well-being.

Investigated psychological well-being among Type A (coronary prone) and Type B (noncoronary prone) individuals across the age span. It was hypothesized that the hard-driving, achievement-oriented lifestyle exhibited by Type A's would be adaptive in younger age groups but would lead to lower well-being in later life because of increased limitations on the range and level of activities. By contrast, the more relaxed, easygoing style of Type B's would match better the slower pace of old age but would not be as conducive to success in younger age groups. 319 adults (aged 18–89 yrs) completed a battery of instruments that included the Jenkins Activity Survey and scales of life changes and psychopathology. Results confirm the hypotheses but indicate that psychological differences may be mediated in part by differences in physical well-being. Experience with life events and the structure and function of social networks may contribute to the differences in well-being. (59 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego identity, intimacy, sex role orientation, and gender.

Assessed identity and intimacy in 40 male and 40 female university students, using a semistructured interview and a rating manual. Ss were also administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Results show that for males, identity was related to masculinity and intimacy was related to femininity. For females, identity was also related to masculinity; there were more high-intimacy females than males. While high identity/high intimacy was not contingent on androgyny (as hypothesized), proportionately more androgynous than nonandrogynous Ss were in this category. Results lend support to the hypothesis that it is desirable and beneficial for each sex to integrate aspects of the other gender's sex type. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type A behavior pattern and escalating commitment.

98 Ss were randomly assigned to high- and low-responsibility conditions in a commitment-escalation experiment. Global Type A behavior pattern and the underlying dimension of achievement strivings were positively related to the desire to continue the same course of action in the high prior-responsibility condition but not in the low prior-responsibility condition. These findings are discussed in terms of future research into the judgment processes of people with Type A personality and the possible role of escalating commitment in disorders experienced by people with Type A personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations: Implications for personal adjustment.

We tested three competing hypotheses: traditional assumptions that sex-typed traits and behaviors are necessary for optimal adjustment (sex role congruence model); the contemporary androgyny hypothesis, which posits that transcendence of narrow sex typing permits enhanced psychological functioning; and the empirically based masculinity model, which states that psychological health in both men and women is primarily a function of masculine, instrumental traits. Measures of sex role traits, attitudes, and behaviors and scales assessing self-esteem and adjustment were administered to 411 college men and women. Sex role attitudes did not covary with individual differences in adjustment, but sex role traits and behaviors did. Masculine traits and behaviors had broadly positive implications for self-esteem and adjustment for women as well as for men. Feminine qualities did not relate to the adjustment indices as strongly or consistently as masculine ones did, but they did contribute positively to most indices and played a central role in communal self-esteem components. Overall, no support was found for the traditional congruence model, but both the androgyny and masculinity models were supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression, psychological separation, and college adjustment: An investigation for sex differences.

18 male and 24 female undergraduates from intact families completed the Beck Depression Inventory, a psychological separation inventory, and a college adjustment inventory. Results indicate that males were significantly more independent of parents than were females and that significant negative correlations between psychological separation and both depression and college adjustment existed only for females. No significant relation between depression and college adjustment was observed for either males or females. Additional findings suggest that the relation of psychological separation to adjustment was affected by the type of independence and adjustment being measured as well as the sex of the S and the S's parent. Implications for developmental theory are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of gender, sex role identity, and Type A behavior in anger expression and mental health functioning.

This study, including 407 female and 222 male college students, investigated the relationship of gender, sex role identity, and Type A behavior to multiple dimensions of anger expression and mental health functioning. Significant multivariate effects were found for sex role and behavior pattern type for anger expression. Significant gender differences were not observed. Univariate analyses revealed consistent relationships between sex role identity and anger proneness, suppression, and control and the tendency to express anger outwardly. Consistent relationships were found between behavior pattern type and both anger proneness and suppression. Significant multivariate effects were found for gender, sex role, and behavior pattern type for mental health functioning. Gender differences were not observed in depression. Women obtained higher scores on indirect hostility, irritability, and dependency, and men obtained higher scores on assault and aggressiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maculinity, femininity, Type A behavior, and psychosocial adjustment in medical students.

80 male and 35 female freshmen medical students (mean age 23.6 yrs) completed measures of masculinity and femininity; Type A (coronary prone) behavior; and psychological well-being, adjustment, and interpersonal satisfaction to investigate the relationship between these variables in Ss. Appropriate statistical treatment of the data revealed strong and consistent masculinity effects on neuroticism, depression, self-esteem, confidence, hedonic capacity, locus of control, and relationship satisfaction. Femininity main effects varied in number as a function of the statistical method employed and involved a more diverse group of variables than is typically reported. Additive androgyny formulations of mental health were supported; balance androgyny formulations were not. No evidence for a Type A?×?masculinity effect on adjustment was found. Discussion focuses on the correct interpretation of masculinity and femininity scales, comparability of ANOVA and multiple regression statistical analyses, and the viability of the concept of androgyny. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern and social facilitation.

Investigated the task performance of 120 Type A coronary-prone undergraduates relative to 120 Type B's (as determined by the Jenkins Activity Survey, Form T) in 3 types of social situations: alone, with a similarly performing coactor, or with a better performing coactor. Results indicate that Type A's performance on a simple task was facilitated by the presence of either a similar or superior coactor, whereas the presence of coactors impaired performance on a complex task. Type B's showed weak and nonsignificant facilitation effects that occurred only in the presence of similar coactors. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the Type A's concern about evaluation, achievement, and social comparison and (b) G. S. Sanders and R. S. Baron's (see record 1976-06212-001) distraction–conflict theory of social facilitation. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type A behavior pattern, inhibited power motivation, and activity inhibition.

The constructs of the Type A behavior pattern and the Inhibited Power Motive Syndrome (IPMS) have many features in common. The empirical relation between the two constructs was investigated in this study with 45 employed, male medical and surgical patients. Four different measures of the Type A pattern were examined. Results showed that, of the four measures, the Structured Interview and the Hostility Scale were related significantly to the IPMS. Systolic blood pressure reactivity was also related significantly to the IPMS. These relations could be ascribed largely to activity inhibition alone. The contribution of activity inhibition to an understanding of the biological and psychological substrates of the Type A behavior pattern is discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modifying the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern.

Compared 3 treatments for modifying the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern (TABP). Comprehensive behavior therapy (CBT), emphasizing self-control procedures, and group support (GS), encouraging change in TABP targets but without behavioral techniques, were contrasted to brief information (BI), a minimal treatment control simulating "usual care." At posttreatment, results with 38 26–50 yr old healthy male executives showed many TABP components (e.g., Jenkins Activity Survey) were significantly reduced by CBT and GS. Generally, these groups exceeded BI. Ratings of self-reported change in stress reactions showed a similar pattern of reduction, as did free fatty acids reactivity assessed as a response to an experimental stressor task. No changes were found on other characteristics thought to be associated with TABP (e.g., trait anxiety, life satisfaction), or on condition-related differences in heart rate and blood pressure. Unexpectedly, serum cholesterol increased significantly across all conditions, though CBT showed significant reduction in triglyceride. Results show that TABP components, especially specific reactions of anger and impatience are useful treatment targets and that change in them may not require more generalized personality modification. Comparable effects of CBT and GS are discussed in terms of sample characteristics and shared treatment elements. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Control over stress, Type A behavior pattern, and response to stress.

Examined (a) differences in physiological response of Type A and Type B individuals to conditions that varied in both controllability and consistency of controllability over an aversive stimulus and (b) whether Type A relative to Type B individuals use more denial and/or projection in cognitively coping with arousing situations as well as whether they differ in being preoccupied in such situations. 96 male undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: no control over shock, consistent control over shock, intermittent control over shock, and low stress. Type A and B behaviors were assessed with the Activity scale of the Thurstone Temperament Schedule. Results indicated that relative to Type B Ss, Type A's manifested (a) greater pulse rates and systolic and diastolic blood pressure in the consistent control condition, (b) greater systolic blood pressure in the no-control condition, and (c) greater diastolic blood pressure in the intermittent control condition. Type A's also used more denial and projection across the 3 high-stress conditions but did not differ in how preoccupied they were as compared to Type B's. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time consciousness, achievement striving, and the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern.

Investigated some behavioral consequences of a coronary-prone behavior pattern called Type A, which is characterized by excessive achievement striving and a sense of time urgency. Ss were 62 undergraduates who were classified by the Jenkins Activity Survey for Health Prediction. The impatient tendencies of Type A Ss led them to judge the lapse of 1 min sooner than non-coronary-prone Type B Ss. Results also indicate that Type As worked on a task at near maximum capacity, irrespective of the presence or absence of a time deadline. Type Bs, by contrast, exerted more effort only when the task had an explicit deadline. Both time-estimation and performance findings are discussed in terms of Pattern A as a coping strategy for maintaining control over the physical and social environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relinquishment of control and the Type A behavior pattern: The role of performance evaluation.

Investigated the role of information processing in the control relinquishment decisions of individuals with Type A (coronary prone) and Type B (noncoronary prone) personalities. Pairs of undergraduates (N?=?147) who had previously completed the Jenkins Activity Survey worked independently on a task and received feedback indicating that their partner had performed at a comparable or superior level. On a 2nd task, Ss combined their efforts and made decisions concerning who would work on different parts of that task. One-third of the Ss made this decision before completing an evaluation of the initial performances. Another third completed the evaluation without knowing that they would subsequently make a control decision. The final third of the Ss completed their evaluations knowing that a control decision would follow. Results indicate that when the evaluations were completed last, or when the evaluations were completed first but without knowledge of the impending decision, Type A's relinquished less control to a superior partner than did Type B's. When evaluations were completed with knowledge of an impending control decision, Type A's and B's did not differ in their decisions. Results suggest that under certain conditions, Type A's use an automatic or mindless decision style with potentially maladaptive consequences. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relinquishment of control and the Type A behavior pattern.

Past research suggests that Type A (coronary prone) Ss have a higher need for control than Type B (noncoronary prone) Ss, and empirical evidence documents their greater reactivity to control loss. The present study investigated the case of control decisions and examined the hypothesis that Type A's would be less willing than Type B's to relinquish control to another person. On an initial 20-trial RT task, 160 male undergraduates (typed on the basis of the Jenkins Activity Survey, Form T) received feedback about their own performance and about that of a partner. The feedback indicated equal or superior performance by the partner. On a subsequent replication of the task in which only 1 S could work on any 1 trial, Type A's relinquished fewer trials to their partners than did Type B's, particularly when the partner had exhibited a superior initial performance. Attribution data indicated that Type A's were less convinced of their partners' ability, thus justifying lower relinquishment. Implications for job stress and management decision making are discussed. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type A behavior pattern and the judgment of control.

Investigated the control judgments of Type A (coronary-prone) and Type B (noncoronary-prone) actors and observers after 5 tasks in which actual response–outcome contingency and success were varied systematically. 40 male and 40 female undergraduates, classified as Type A or B on the Jenkins Activity Survey, performed the control task or served as observers in same-sex pairs. Overall, actors provided higher control judgments than did observers, and both actual contingency and success influenced judged control. Type A and B actors did not differ in their self-perceptions of control, but observers judged the Type A actors to have exerted more control than the Type B actors, primarily on positive contingency tasks. Findings suggest that Type A's, because of their more dynamic style, may be credited by observers with more control or competence than is warranted. By contrast, the more relaxed style of the Type B may lead to lower than warranted evaluations of control or competence. Type A's were found to learn the contingencies better than Type B's, which has important implications for the actual exercise of control. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributional style and the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern.

Examined the attributional styles of Types A (coronary-prone) and B (non-coronary-prone) individuals in 2 studies in which 62 undergraduates and 199 18–65 yr old county residents, classified on the Jenkins Activity Survey, completed an attributional style questionnaire. Past research suggests that Type A's exhibit greater performance deficits than Type B's following exposure to extended, salient uncontrollable stimuli. The reformulated learned-helplessness model suggests that individuals most prone to such performance deficits should exhibit an attributional style characterized by internal, stable, and global attributions for negative outcomes, but external, unstable, and specific attributions for positive outcomes. However, a self-esteem protection explanation of learned-helplessness findings predicts an opposite, self-serving attributional style. Results from both studies indicate that Type A's were more self-serving than Type B's in their attributions for positive and negative outcomes. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Person perception and the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern.

Investigated the influence of the Type A behavior pattern on attribution processes using 48 male undergraduates. It was predicted that Type A Ss would be more motivated to succeed in the Prisoner's Dilemma game than would Type B's. Increased motivation to succeed was predicted to lead Type A's to exaggerate the amount of dispositional information they would believe they had inferred from observing the behavior of a future opponent, since such a belief would lead to increased confidence about predicting the target's behavior and thus increase Ss' perceived control over the outcome. Results support the predictions when the hard-driving competitiveness dimension of the Type A pattern was used as the individual difference variable. Moreover, evaluations of future opponents in the Prisoner's Dilemma game also differed as a function of the hard-driving competitive dimension. Results are discussed in terms of a person by situation interactive model of motivational influences on attribution processes and in terms of potential interpersonal effects of the cognitive behavior of Type A individuals. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)