DFD牛肉研究进展

牛肉是主要肉类产品之一,能够为消费者提供丰富的蛋白质。随着社会进步和人们生活水平的提高,人们更加看重肉品质量。但是,目前我国肉牛产业链的各个环节尚不完善,导致了劣质牛肉的产生和较高的DFD（dark,firm and dry）牛肉发生率。本文综述了DFD牛肉的发生机理及其影响因素,同时阐述了恰当的肉牛宰前管理方式和DFD牛肉的控制措施,为我国肉牛产业的发展提供一定参考。     

正常牛肉与DFD牛肉成熟过程中保水性和水分状态变化

为探究正常牛肉与DFD（dark, firm and dry）牛肉成熟过程中水分状态变化及其对保水性的影响,本实验以正常牛肉和DFD牛肉的背最长肌（M. longissimus lumborum）作为研究对象,使用低场核磁共振技术探究DFD牛肉与正常牛肉分别在成熟3、7、14 d和21 d时水分状态的变化,并通过肌节长度和细胞外空间比组织学指标分析成熟过程中DFD牛肉与正常牛肉保水性差异的原因。结果表明：成熟过程中正常牛肉和DFD牛肉保水性均呈下降趋势,其中DFD牛肉保水性显著高于正常牛肉（P＜0.05）,DFD牛肉中结合水、不易流动水和自由水的自由度较低,且结合水相对含量较高;DFD牛肉肌节长度显著低于正常牛肉（P＜0.05）,肌节内狭窄的储水空间可降低肉中水分的自由度,并且成熟过程中DFD牛肉肌细胞始终保持完整形态,细胞水分散失减少,因此DFD牛肉能够在成熟过程中保持良好的保水性。本研究结果阐述了DFD和正常牛肉成熟过程中的水分状态变化,并从不同水分状态和肌肉组织学角度揭示了DFD牛肉成熟过程中保水性较好的原因,可为提高牛肉保水性提供理论指导。     

不同超高压处理对DFD牛肉肉色及货架期的影响

为降低DFD(dark, firm and dry)牛肉初始菌落总数,延长真空包装DFD牛肉货架期并改善肉色,以不同压力（200、400、600 MPa）配合不同加压时间（5、10 min）的超高压处理为实验组,以空白处理为对照组,测定真空包装DFD牛肉在（2±2）℃条件下贮藏0、2、4、6、8、12、16 d后的肉色、表观肉色图像、pH值、微生物和3种肌红蛋白相对含量,探究超高压处理对DFD牛肉货架期及肉色的影响,进而探寻适合DFD牛肉肉色改善和货架期延长的超高压处理条件。结果表明：超高压能显著提高DFD牛肉的亮度值、红度值和黄度值（P<0.05）,增加氧合肌红蛋白的相对含量,降低高铁肌红蛋白的相对含量,但过高压力（600 MPa）会使DFD牛肉呈现粉红色;超高压处理能显著降低DFD牛肉初始菌落总数（P<0.05）,200 MPa(5、10 min)处理组使DFD牛肉初始菌落总数降低0.6、0.8(lg(CFU/g)),400 MPa(5、10 min)处理组降低1.1、1.3(lg(CFU/g)),600 MPa(5、10 min)处理组降低1.7、2.0(lg(CFU/g)),有效抑制了微生物在贮藏期间的生长;对照组在12 d时已腐败,200 MPa处理组在16 d时达到腐败限值,而冷藏16 d,400、600 MPa处理组均未腐败;400 MPa是有效改善DFD牛肉肉色、延长其货架期的最适压力,保压时间的延长对肉色和货架期的影响不显著（P>0.05）。综合考虑,400 MPa-10 min是超高压处理DFD牛肉的最适参数,能改善DFD牛肉肉色,同时将货架期至少延长5 d以上。     

宰后放置时间对牛肉匀浆物热诱导凝胶特性的影响

通过对宰后1、2、3、4、5d的牛肉匀浆物的可溶性蛋白质浓度、凝胶的保水特性、凝胶强度及质构特性等指标的测定,研究宰后放置不同时间对牛背最长肌匀浆物热诱导凝胶特性的影响。结果表明,匀浆物的蛋白质浓度与凝胶保水性随放置时间呈现相同的先降后升的变化趋势,而凝胶强度、脱水率、硬度、粘性与咀嚼性则呈现相反的先升后降趋势。宰后放置时间较短时(1~3d),凝胶弹性呈现先升后降的显著变化,当放置较长时间(≥4d),弹性值有所回升,但变化并不显著。宰后放置较短时间(1~3d),内聚性随宰后时间的增加显著降低,宰后放置较长时间(≥4d),内聚性增加并趋于稳定。由此可知,宰后放置不同时间对牛肉匀浆物的凝胶特性影响较大,且各指标随宰后时间的变化趋势存在明显的相关性,可为凝胶类肉制品生产的原料选择提供理论依据。      

宰后放置时间对牛肉匀浆物热诱导凝胶特性的影响

通过对宰后1、2、3、4、5d的牛肉匀浆物的可溶性蛋白质浓度、凝胶的保水特性、凝胶强度及质构特性等指标的测定,研究宰后放置不同时间对牛背最长肌匀浆物热诱导凝胶特性的影响。结果表明,匀浆物的蛋白质浓度与凝胶保水性随放置时间呈现相同的先降后升的变化趋势,而凝胶强度、脱水率、硬度、粘性与咀嚼性则呈现相反的先升后降趋势。宰后放置时间较短时(1~3d),凝胶弹性呈现先升后降的显著变化,当放置较长时间(≥4d),弹性值有所回升,但变化并不显著。宰后放置较短时间(1~3d),内聚性随宰后时间的增加显著降低,宰后放置较长时间(≥4d),内聚性增加并趋于稳定。由此可知,宰后放置不同时间对牛肉匀浆物的凝胶特性影响较大,且各指标随宰后时间的变化趋势存在明显的相关性,可为凝胶类肉制品生产的原料选择提供理论依据。     

宰后不同时间冷冻和冻结速率对牛肉食用品质的影响

采用均匀实验设计,以宰后时间和冻结速率为考察因素,以牛背最长肌为原料,探讨宰后放置不同时间进行冷冻和不同冻结速率对解冻后牛肉食用品质的影响规律。结果表明,宰后时间和冻结速率对冻结肉样的蒸煮损失、p H、a*值和剪切力值均有显著影响(p<0.05),但对肉样的L*值、b*值影响不显著(p>0.05)。当保持冻结速率一定时,肉样解冻后的蒸煮损失和p H均随着宰后时间的增加而增加,a*值和剪切力随宰后时间的延长而降低,宰后时间对肉样的解冻汁液流失无显著影响(p>0.05);当保持宰后时间一定时,冻结肉样的解冻汁液流失、蒸煮损失、p H、a*值和剪切力值均随着冻结速率的增大而降低。      

宰后颈臂束缚技术对牛肉品质的影响

颈臂束缚技术是一种在跟腱吊挂基础上,于牛胴体前臂远端与颈前端之间施加一径向外力使之收紧,从而 加快肉牛胴体成熟的技术。为研究该技术对牛肉品质的影响,选取6 头年龄和活体质量相近的新疆褐牛,屠宰后左 半侧胴体采用颈臂束缚技术成熟（实验组）,右半侧胴体采用传统跟腱吊挂方式成熟（对照组）,分别于宰后0、 1、2、3、7、14、21 d测定牛臂三头肌、背最长肌和股二头肌三部位的pH值、失水率、蒸煮损失率、剪切力和肌纤 维超微结构等指标。结果表明：与对照组相比,实验组肉样失水率增加、剪切力降低、肌原纤维小片化指数增大, 且差异显著,肌原纤维结构破坏更为严重。颈臂束缚成熟技术可以缩短牛肉的宰后成熟时间,降低工厂生产成本, 提高生产效率。     

宰后成熟对牛肉品质的影响

本文通过对牛肉中粗钙激活因子（依钙蛋白酶CAF）的活性及肌原纤维小片化指数、胶原含量的测定,说明牛肉中依钙蛋白酶的活性随宰后时间的延长面下降,直影响到肉嫩度的变化、成熟时间越长,肌原纤维小片化程度越高,肌原纤维结构破坏越来在重,越有利于提高肉的嫩度。     

热鲜牛肉适宜冷藏时间的研究

试验将屠宰后8h牛肉置于0～4℃的冰箱内分别贮藏1d、3d、5d、7d,通过对其进行剪切力、煮熟率的测定,以及对其颜色和风味的评定,以研究热鲜牛肉的适宜冷藏时间。结果表明:随冷藏时间的延长,牛肉嫩度和系水力得到改善,但是5d色泽变暗、7d后风味变差。由试验结果看,在0～4℃下热鲜牛肉的冷藏期最多不超过5d。     

去除牛肉膻味的研究

新鲜牛肉经过腌制,添加枸杞、芹菜、β－环状糊精等物质,可有效地去除令人不悦的膻味,制成口味良好的肉丸、牛肉肠等产品。     

A practical method to prevent dark-cutting (DFD) in beef

A method for the prevention of dark-cutting in beef, based on recognition of social relationships within groups of bulls, was tested on 2234 bulls slaughtered under commercial conditions. When the influence of time between loading the animals and slaughter was eliminated statistically, the bulls of the socially stablized group showed the lowest pH₂₄ values, whereas those of the socially unstable group showed the highest ones. When the type of social group was eliminated statistically, the earlier slaughtered animals had lower pH₂₄ values than those slaughtered later. When the two major factors were integrated, there was no statistically significant difference in the pH₂₄ values in bulls of the socially stabilized group whether they were slaughtered immediately after transport or during the following day. In contrast, in bulls from the socially unstable group, the pH₂₄ values increased substantially after overnight lairage at the abattoir. In conclusion, for longer transportion, bulls from loose housing with stable social relationships should be used. It is necessary to keep the same social groups from loading to slaughter, strictly avoiding any mixing of strange bulls. Bulls from tethered stalls should be transported and slaughtered within as short a time after regrouping as possible.     

Prevention of dark-cutting (DFD) beef in penned bulls at the abattoir

There is a large body of evidence indicating that activities associated with regrouping of bulls before slaughter, which leads to physical exhaustion mainly from mounting, are primary factors inducing dark-cutting (DFD) in beef. The aim of this study was to test several methods to control activity when regrouping cannot be avoided. Fifty bulls previously individually tied for at least 16 months were drafted into groups of five animals and released in a pen at the abattoir. After 18 to 22 h they were slaughtered. According to environmental conditions in the pen, the bulls were divided into four groups: Control group (n = 10, no experimentation); Electricity group (n = 10, an electric fence was constructed above the pen so that a mounting bull would receive an electric shock); Darkness group (n = 10, the whole stall was in darkness); and Combination group (n = 20, both treatments, of the electricity and darkness groups were applied). During the first hour of penning the behaviour of the bulls was videorecorded. After slaughter meat quality characteristics were measured. Dark-cutting was found in Control (70%), Electricity (30%) and Darkness (70%) groups, but not in the Combination group (0%). No treatment altered the repertoire of agonistic activity, but under the combined treatments the number of agonistic interactions was significantly lower than in any other group.     

Influence of the time of year on the incidence of PSE and DFD in Irish pigmeat

The conditions of PSE (pale, soft, exudative) and DFD (dark, firm, and dry) are significant causes for downgrading of pigmeat resulting in financial loss to the slaughter plant. The objective of this study was to document the variation in quality of pigmeat from one slaughter plant over a 15-month period, based on colour, appearance and pH. During 4 days of most weeks, 30 pigs were randomly selected from the slaughter line, resulting in a total number of 4560 pigs. Muscle pH between the third and fourth rib was measured 45 min, 90 min and 24 h after slaughter. Using a Minolta colorimeter (Hunter L, a, b scale), colour of the longissimus dorsi muscle was measured 24 h after slaughter. Muscle colour was also visually scored on a scale of 1-6. Carcass pH at 24 h post-mortem varied significantly with month of slaughter (P<0.04) as did colour (Hunter L, P<0.001; Hunter a, P<0.001; Hunter b, P<0.001). It was concluded that meat quality as measured by 24 h pH and colour was poorest during the months of November and December. While this may be at least partly related to weather, it is probable that the increased slaughtering rates at this time and variable resting period before slaughter had the biggest impact.     

Consumer acceptability of dark, firm and dry (DFD) and normal pH beef steaks

The sensory attributes of dark, firm and dry (DFD) and normal pH beef, both raw and fried, were evaluated and compared by a consumer panel (n=64). Consumer sensory evaluations indicated that the general appearance (P<0.05), colour (P<0.001) and acceptability (P<0.01) of raw normal pH steaks were preferred to those of raw DFD steaks. Twice as many panellists preferred the raw normal pH than raw DFD steaks because of the more attractive red colour, compared to the almost black colour of raw DFD steaks. No significant differences were found between the hedonic ratings of the sensory attributes of fried normal pH and fried DFD steaks. It was expected but not confirmed that consumers would find the tenderness of the DFD steaks more acceptable compared to the normal pH steaks. However, when forced to choose, female consumers significantly preferred fried normal pH steaks to fried DFD steaks, presumably because of a better flavour and more acceptable colour.     

The incidence of dark cutting beef in Sweden

The incidence of DFD (Dark, Firm, Dry) in Swedish cattle was studied at four abattoirs and the influence of some parameters of special interest for the development of DFD were evaluated. The pH was measured in a total of 2686 carcasses of different categories. Carcasses with a pH(24) ≥ 6·2 were classified as being DFD. Only for electrically stimulated carcasses could the pH(24) be considered to be the ultimate pH value. DFD incidences of 3·4% and 13·2% were recorded as overall means for electrically stimulated and non-stimulated carcasses, respectively. The highest incidence was found in young bull carcasses having almost twice as high an incidence of DFD compared with the other categories. Considering seasonal variations, the highest incidence of DFD was found in the period May to August but significant differences in pH were found only for short lairage times. Overnight lairaging increased the incidence of DFD. However, the influence of the lairage time is closely related to the lairage conditions and needs further study.     

Dissimilarity scaling and INDSCAL analysis in the study of flavour differences between normal pHu and DFD beef

Overall dissimilarity measurement of paired stimuli followed by Individual Differences Scaling (INDSCAL) analysis was used to study flavour perception in a set of beef extracts. The experiment was designed to determine whether pH contributed to flavour difference between beef of “normal” ultimate pH (pHu5.8) and “dark-cutting” (DFD) beef (pHu6.2). Assessors distinguished the flavour of “normal” pHu and DFD beef both by a combination of pH and titratable acidity, and a second dimension independent of pH. The chemicals added to adjust pH independently of the original muscle composition contributed a third flavour dimension. Substantial assessor variation was observed in the relative weight given to the three flavour dimensions, and this is discussed in relation to the task of judging overall dissimilarity.     

山东烟区烟草农机专业合作社现状分析

为考察烟草农机专业合作社服务烟农和现代烟草农业的现状和能力,采用实地调查和问卷调查相结合的方法,对山东烟区烟草农机专业合作社的发展情况进行了详细调研.调查表明,烟草农机专业合作社具有发展快,建立基础好,领办主体多元等特点,在提高劳动生产效率、保障烟叶质量、促进烟草专业化和标准生产等方面发挥了重要作用.同时也存在治理结构不健全、规章制度不完善、盈余分配不规范、财务管理较混乱、经营服务不到位等问题,需要从增强烟农合作意识,完善治理结构,实行科学管理,增强服务效能等方面对合作社运营进行完善,同时也需要烟草公司和政府提供政策与资金支持.     

山东蓝宝石结构缺陷的同步辐射白光形貌相研究

采用同步辐射白光形貌术对山东蓝宝石的位错等晶体缺陷进行分析研究。山东蓝宝石薄片的同步辐射白光形貌图像揭示,大部分蓝宝石不同程度的存在结构缺陷,其中,样品的不同区域、不同方位、不同颜色的缺陷明显程度不同,特别值得关注的是黄褐色蓝宝石及蓝宝石中黄褐色区域结构缺陷明显,变形严重。其规律性有待进一步研究。     

苏鲁造纸工业发展之比较

苏鲁造纸工业产量在全国分列第4位、第1位,在国内地位举足轻重。山东的晨鸣、太阳和华泰,江苏的金东、玖龙和理文,这6个企业年产量都超过了百万吨,但两省还有众多的小型造纸企业。近年两省造纸的原料结构趋于合理,产品种类各有特色,投资结构迥然不同,环保事业进步明显。今后几年,苏鲁造纸应在节能减排上花更大的力气,努力树立清洁生产的良好形象。     

山东省烟草病毒病种群发生动态及防治对策

报道了近几年对山东省烟草病毒病的调查研究结果.提出了山东省内烟草病毒病的种群动态、分布情况及所造成的损失;分析了病害严重发生的原因;提出了病害防治对策.