Investigation on relations between grain crushing amount and void ratio change of granular materials in one-dimensional compression and creep tests

Grain crushing plays an important role in one-dimensional (1D) compression and creep behaviors of granular materials under high stress. It is clear that the macro-properties of granular materials are closely related to the micro-fracture properties of grains in 1D compression and creep tests. In this paper, a series of 1D compression and creep tests were performed on Ottawa sand to investigate the deformation and grain crushing properties of granular materials, and it shows that the void ratio is correlated to the grain crushing amount (the quantity of crushed grains) for granular materials subjected to grain crushing. The test results, combining with the existing test data related to grain crushing of granular materials, were used to verify the relation. Moreover, the implications of these relations on the yield of granular material, and the equivalent effect of stress and time in changing soil fabric are presented.     

Static Fatigue Controls Particle Crushing and Time Effects in Granular Materials

Based on observations from constant strain rate experiments and from creep and stress relaxation experiments initiated at different stress levels it is found that sand exhibits patterns of time effects different from those observed in clays. It appears that time effects in sand may be associated with crushing of particles, and a mechanistic picture of time effects in granular materials is constructed in which time effects depend on interparticle friction, grain crushing and grain rearrangement. This mechanistic picture is based on measured behavior in drained triaxial compression tests on three different sands in which strain rate effects are observed as small to negligible. While creep and relaxation are caused by the same underlying phenomenon, it appears that results of creep tests cannot be obtained from results of relaxations tests, and vice versa. The phenomenon of static fatigue of individual particles seems to be at the root of time effects in sand. A review of previous studies of static fatigue is presented. Triaxial tests on a beach sand incorporating creep and stress relaxation are followed by grain size analysis to prove that grain crushing relate to the observed time effects. Additional triaxial tests are presented in which the effect of water is demonstrated in support of the static fatigue mechanism. Load-controlled tests on individual sand particles in the form of spherical glass beads (quartz) were performed by maintaining constant loads lower than the short term crushing loads. As do rock and concrete specimens in triaxial compression, the glass beads show effects of time to crushing.     

One-Dimensional Compression Behaviour of Uniformly Graded Sand Related to Single Particle Crushing Strength

In order to compare one-dimensional compression behaviour with the crushing strength characteristics of single particles, one-dimensional compression and single particle crushing tests were carried out on various granular materials with uniform gradings. The average characteristic tensile stress acting on a particle in a sample was calculated using a simplified approach. The one-dimensional compression yield stress was related to the particle size and this was also related to the single particle crushing strength. The decrease of the vertical yield stress with increasing initial void ratio can be explained by the increase in the particle characteristic stress as the void ratio increased and a corresponding decrease in co-ordination number. The single particle strengths were compared with the characteristic tensile stress for a particle embedded in the soil matrix. The logarithm of the characteristic tensile stress at maximum compression index for a particle embedded in a granular matrix could be related to the logarithm of the single particle strength multiplied by a proportional factor. The introduction of a factor was necessary because the calculated average characteristic tensile stress did not take into account the non-uniform distribution of inter-particle stresses. The ratio of the single particle strengths to the average characteristic tensile stress for a particle embedded in the soil matrix was considered to be an indicator of the non-uniform distribution. This ratio decreased and hence uniformity of inter-particle stress distribution increased with angularity and surface roughness.     

Creep and time-dependent damage in argillaceous rocks

This paper presents the results of laboratory tests on the time-dependent behaviour of three rocks characterized by a high proportion of clay particles. The viscosity of these sedimentary rocks was studied under different loading conditions in uniaxial compression: static or cyclic creep tests and quasistatic tests (low-loading strain rate) were performed across various orientations of fabric planes.The quasistatic tests showed similarities in the mechanical response of these three argillaceous rocks: a late phase of dilation and a linear development of volumetric deformation before the beginning of unstable crack propagation. The development of secondary and tertiary creep phases during the creep tests highlighted the existence of a deviatoric stress threshold, below which only primary creep is observed. Long-term creep tests also showed that the volumetric variation is not constant during the development of viscoplastic deformations.A microstructural analysis of thin sections extracted from specimens after the tests, gave evidence of cataclastic and granular creep. Damage to the argillaceous matrix occurs and no cracks were observed in the quartz and carbonate grains. This evidence was also demonstrated for tests with loading at a high strain rate.Finally, this study highlights the significant viscoplasticity of argillaceous rocks. The mechanical properties deteriorate rapidly when crack propagation becomes unstable and the viscoplastic strains seem to be due to clay particle slips, known as granular creep.     

基于热力学和微极理论考虑颗粒破碎的微观力学模型

颗粒破碎是自然界中常见的物理现象。高应力水平作用下堆石坝料会发生严重的颗粒破碎。基于热力学和微极理论,建立了考虑颗粒破碎的微观力学模型。为了模拟颗粒体的破碎过程和侧向应力的影响,把胶结在一起的3个等粒径的颗粒体当作颗粒破碎体。通过引入颗粒破碎准则,并采用均匀化理论,建立了颗粒尺度的应力–应变关系,并模拟了加载过程中颗粒破碎发生时的应力和应变。计算结果表明所提出的微观力学模型可以模拟颗粒破碎前的应力逐渐增大和破碎时的应力跌落现象。     

Hypoplastic model for crushable sand

A constitutive model for granular materials which considers grain crushing effects is developed in the framework of hypoplasticity. As grain crushing occurs the behaviour of granular material can usually be significantly affected. Several empirical relations between peak strength, uniformity coefficient and stiffness of sand depending on stress level or amount of grain crushing have been derived in the past. In this paper, such relations are employed to improve a basic hypoplastic constitutive model based on the changes of stress level or grain size distribution. In the proposed modified hypoplastic model only two additional physical parameters, namely uniformity coefficient and mean grain size are incorporated. The validation of the modified model for three different sands under triaxial test response with cell pressures up to 30?MPa is presented and shows a significantly better correspondence with regard to the original basic hypoplastic model.     

考虑时间效应的粒状材料的UH模型

近年来,山区支线机场建设日益增多。机场高填方工程往往填方量较大,就地取材,填料含有土料、砂料、堆石料等不同岩土材料。准确预测填料的工后沉降变形影响到机场的安全性和正常运营。相对于黏土,粒状材料特性往往更复杂,可能会出现颗粒破碎等现象。现有的黏弹塑性本构模型大部分只适用于黏土,不能直接用于计算粒状材料流变变形。本文提出一个能够统一描述黏土和粒状材料应力–应变–时间特性的考虑时间效应的粒状材料的UH模型。并且给出了将该模型利用ABAQUS二次开发接口,编写用户子程序,进行有限元实现的过程。最后,利用模型对黏土剪切蠕变试验及砂土三轴不排水试验进行预测,并与试验结果对比,验证了模型的正确性,说明模型能够较好地描述黏土和粒状材料的应力–应变–时间关系。     

Testing and modelling total suction effects on compressibility and creep of crushable granular material

Recent works have shown that delayed events of particle crushing are partially responsible of creep deformation in granular materials, and that Stress Corrosion Cracking promoted by high humidity within particles is the source of this mechanism. A number of experimental studies have focused on creep behaviour of water saturated samples and wetting-deformation after soaking dry material. However, there are few evidences of the effect of varying total suction in time-dependent deformation of partially saturated crushable material, and this mechanism have been rarely considered in constitutive models. The aims of this paper are to present experimental evidence of the effect of total suction on compressibility and creep of sandy sized samples from crushed rock, and to propose a simple one-dimensional elasto-plastic modelling approach based on the enhancement of an existing model. Oedometric compression tests at different total suctions are presented. The results show that compressibility and creep strains increase with both stress and humidity. The model proposed uses a time-dependent hardening law coupling suction with the amount of particle breakage. Based on preliminary calibrations, the model captures the effect of suction and time-dependent behaviour over a large range of total suction.     

超径颗粒粒度效应对基底材料力学特性的影响

本文对“基底型”颗粒材料中超径颗粒含量、颗粒粒径、基底土干容重以及试验围压4个因素对其力学特性的影响进行了大量的室内三轴试验,获得了各影响因素的定量参数。通过对试验成果的分析,着重探讨了基底型颗粒材料中超径颗粒粒径和含量两个因素对其强度变形特性的影响规律及其力学机理,提出了用单位剪切线上的超径颗粒数目这一特征指标来综合反映超径颗粒尺寸和含量对基底材料强度特性的影响效应。并进一步对试验中所观测到的一个重要的物理现象-基底型颗粒材料变形形态的分叉现象,进行了理论分析。     

粉砂质泥岩常规力学、蠕变以及应力松弛特性的对比研究

 在相同围压下,对饱和粉砂质泥岩分别进行常规三轴压缩试验、三轴压缩蠕变试验以及三轴压缩应力松弛试验。基于试验结果,比较3种力学试验得出的岩石试样轴向强度大小以及轴向峰值应变大小,并从岩石破裂机制方面解释岩石强度以及变形差异产生的原因。采用Burgers模型描述粉砂质泥岩的蠕变与应力松弛特性,依据模型参数辨识结果,比较常规力学试验得出的剪切模量G与Burgers蠕变模型和应力松弛模型得出的瞬时剪切模量G1大小关系,并比较Burgers蠕变模型与应力松弛模型对应参数值之间的大小关系。研究结果表明：(1) 粉砂质泥岩试样的瞬时强度最大,蠕变长期强度其次,松弛长期强度最小。(2) 常规力学试验中试样的轴向峰值应变最大,应力松弛试验中试样的轴向峰值应变其次,蠕变试验中试样的轴向峰值应变最小。(3) 常规力学参数G值与Burgers蠕变模型和应力松弛模型参数G1值相差较大,分别是蠕变模型和应力松弛模型参数G1值的64.5,86.8倍。(4) 对于G1,G2,?1,?2这4个参数,蠕变模型辨识得出的参数值均较应力松弛模型辨识得出的参数值大。2种模型的G1参数值大小接近,而其他3种参数G2,?1和?2,采用2种模型辨识得出的参数值差别较大,相差1～2个数量级,其中G2参数值相差最小,?1参数值相差最大。与剪切模量G1,G2参数值相比,2种模型的黏滞系数η1,η2参数值相差较大,表明?1,?2对岩石蠕变与应力松弛特性的影响较大。(5) 粉砂质泥岩蠕变与应力松弛模型对应参数的比较结果,证明所得出的岩石蠕变与应力松弛模型参数的正确性,与线黏弹性材料不同,岩石的蠕变特性与应力松弛特性是不等同的,不能简单地由岩石的蠕变特性推导得出其应力松弛特性。     

Deformation and Crushing of Particles of Cement Treat Granulate Soil

Cement Treat Granulate Soil (CTGS), a new artificial granular material, has been developed recently by mixing the dredged marine clay with appropriate amounts of cement and polymer. The CTGS particles are crushable and deformable, thus forming a compressible material. Besides being a lightweight material, CTGS is a granular material, and is therefore expected to be applied in reclamations or as a back fill or subsoil materials. This study investigates the deformation and crushing of the CTGS particles and their effects on the stress-strain behaviors. The comprehensive investigation of the principle of treatment, the micro-structure of particles, triaxial stress-strain behaviors, induced particle crushing and particle deformation are first presented via the experimental work done on two types CTGS produced from a lean-mixture design of cement and polymer. Subsequently, the results of X-ray Computer Topography (CT) scanners along with triaxial CD tests on CTGS and conventional gravel having rigid particles are presented. The test results reveal local failure mechanisms between the individual particles of the CTGS and gravel, from which the failure models of the granular materials formed by deformable and crushable grains and non-crushable grains are interpreted.     

Microscopic Particle Crushing of Sand Subjected to High Pressure One-Dimensional Compression

It is commonly accepted that the yield point during one-dimensional compression is related to the initiation of marked particle crushing. Different materials have clear to very amorphous yield points depending on the compression line curvature. In order to examine the relationship between the curvature and slope of the compression line and the statistics of individual particle crushing taking into account particle size and overall grading, high pressure one-dimensional compression tests on silica sand samples seeded with marked particles were carried out. Five levels of particle damage were obtained and defined from microscopic observations of the particles before and after testing. A statistical analysis was carried out on the data for the observed levels of damage to investigate the frequency variation with increasing applied stress. Additionally, one-dimensional compression tests were conducted to examine the effects of initial void ratio and grain size distribution on soil crushability and consequently the compression behaviour. It was found that even for the same material the yielding characteristics were dependent on the grading curve with much more marked yielding occurring for uniformly graded sands in comparison with well graded sands. This was related to the nature of the microscopic particle crushing during yielding. As the material changed from uniform to well graded, the nature of the particle crushing changed from the sudden catastrophic onset of splitting to the gradual splitting of smaller size particles, breaking of the smaller asperities and grinding of the surface.     

Modelling and Simulation of Rate-Dependent Stress-Strain Behaviour of Granular Materials in Shear

A constitutive modelling of the elasto-viscoplastic stress-strain behaviour of geomaterials in shear that has been developed within a non-linear three-component model framework is validated by simulating a comprehensive series of drained triaxial compression (TC) and direct shear (DS) tests on a wide variety of granular materials. Illustrative simulations of rate-dependent stress-strain behaviour of geomaterial under typical laboratory test conditions were performed to analyse the structure of the model. The versatility of the proposed model and its applicability to a wide variety of shear loading histories is examined and demonstrated by these simulations. The following results are shown. Commonly with different basic viscosity types, Isotach, TESRA and P&N, the viscous stress component has a positive component that increases with an increase in the irreversible strain rate, which makes feasible stable and realistic simulations of rate-dependent stress-strain behaviour, including creep deformation, based on the proposed model. With different unbound granular material types having similar relative densities, the creep strain in TC tests and creep shear displacement in DS tests that develop by sustained loading at a given shear stress level for a given period tends to decrease with an increase in the particle roundness. This trend of behaviours is explained by a decrease in the viscosity type parameter, θ, associated with an increase in the particle roundness based on the simulations of these tests.     

Time-Dependent Behavior of Crushable Materials in One-Dimensional Compression Tests

Particle crushing is a progressive phenomenon. This study examines time-dependent behavior due to particle crushing. A review of the literature was made to find evidence of time-dependent behavior due to particle crushing. Single particle crushing tests and one-dimensional compression tests were carried out on four crushable materials with careful visual observations. The mechanism of time-dependent compression was discussed. The following observations were made: (1) The time-dependent behavior under one-dimensional compression stems mainly from a repetitive cycle of crushing, rearrangement of particles and redistribution of contact stresses. (2) Crushing patterns and rearrangement in one-dimensional compression tests are different depending on the characteristics observed in single particle crushing tests.     

侧限压缩下石英砂砾的颗粒破碎特性及其分形描述

利用侧限压缩试验研究高压应力下石英粗砂和细砾的颗粒破碎特性,基于分形模型和粒径分布资料,研究颗粒的破碎分形。结果表明:颗粒破碎量随着压力的增加而增加,并与粒径大小有关。随着破碎量的递增,粗砂的内摩擦角逐渐增大,细砾的内摩擦角先增大后减小,二者最终均趋于稳值;石英砂砾破碎后的粒度分布具有良好的分形特性,破碎分维数的数值大小反映了破碎量的变化,破碎量愈高,分维数愈大,并与Hardin破碎率有较为显著的线性关系。破碎分维数和Hardin破碎率与压应力之间分别存在着双曲线关系和半对数线性关系,因而通过压应力和土粒参数就可估计破碎分维数和破碎率。破碎分维数为粒状材料的颗粒破碎分析提供了一个新的量化指标。     

珊瑚礁砂砾料力学行为与颗粒破碎的试验研究

珊瑚礁砂砾石是中国南海岛礁建设的主要填料,因为特殊的生物成因和多孔隙的颗粒结构,极易产生颗粒破碎。对取自南海某岛礁的珊瑚礁砂砾石填料开展了大型压缩试验、三轴排水剪切试验和三轴不排水剪切试验,研究了压缩指数、杨氏模量、剪胀和强度等基本工程力学指标与颗粒破碎的变化规律。在相同的压缩作用下,疏松试样比密实试样的颗粒破碎程度更大。颗粒破碎程度随着压力的增大而显著增大,导致珊瑚礁砂砾料的压缩模量和杨氏模量随压力的增大增幅不明显,峰值摩擦角和临界状态摩擦角随压力的增高而显著降低。颗粒破碎过程具有明显的应力路径和应力历史依赖性,有无预压作用的相同密度的试样表现出显著不同的压缩特性,相同密度和初始压力的试样在排水和不排水剪切下也表现出明显不同的剪胀和强度特性。峰值摩擦角依赖于应力路径和颗粒破碎的演化过程;临界状态摩擦角与最终的颗粒破碎指标值有较好的相关性,与颗粒破碎的产生过程无关。     

单轴试验条件下粘土的粘塑性与模拟计算

利用饱和、湿润、风干以及烘干的藤森粘土的单轴排水固结试验进行了粘土粘塑性研究。试验过程中采用计算机应变控制的控制式三轴仪来实现加载速率，可在不同加载阶段实现不同的恒应变率加载试验。试验结果表明：各种不同饱和度藤森粘土的粘塑性都表现为等时特性；经过一定时间的蠕变后，粘土弹性模量会有较大的提高，且藤森粘土所表现出的粘塑性与粘土含水量的大小无关。研究结果表明，粘土的粘塑性应力-应变特性可以采用非线性三要素模型进行较好的描述。     

黏土蠕变量的试验研究

对黏土的原状和重塑土样在三轴排水剪切试验条件下的蠕变性进行研究,试验方法包括改变加载应变率的单向加载试验、单向加载试验过程中的蠕变试验、卸载和重复加载过程的蠕变试验等。试验结果表明:1)黏土蠕变量大小与黏土试样的状态有关;2)黏土蠕变量大小与蠕变之前的应变率有关,蠕变前应变率越大,蠕变量就越大;3)黏土蠕变量大小与蠕变时所处的应力水平有关,所处的应力水平越高,蠕变量就越大;4)在重复加载过程中,随着应力水平的提高,黏土的蠕变表现出由负蠕变、中性蠕变到正蠕变的逐渐转化。     

Geotechnical Properties of a Pumice Sand

The pumice sand found in the North Island of New Zealand has properties which lie beyond those usually associated with cohesionless soils. The grains are very soft and the sand has a high void ratio, thus forming a compressible material. This paper presents the results of a series of drained triaxial and K₀ tests on dry pumice sand. The tests were conducted to evaluate the geotechnical properties, particularly the critical state parameters, of the sand and also to provide background information for interpretation of cone penetration tests in the material. The K₀ tests were used to evaluate the compression envelope under conditions of no lateral strain and to determine values of constrained modulus. Significant grain crushing was found to occur during testing even at low confining stress, in fact the stress-strain-strength behaviour of the material is dominated by particle crushing. Routine soil testing techniques were found to be inadequate for the evaluation of the specific gravity of pumice sand particles and a different technique was used for this purpose. The angle of friction of pumice sand was found to be larger than that of quartz sands, however pumice sand required very large shear strains to mobilise the peak and critical state shear strength and, for several tests, critical state conditions were not reached.     

土的基本特性及本构关系与强度理论

土的基本特性及本构关系与强度理论是土力学及岩土工程学科的重要理论基础之一。本 文针对饱和黏土、砂土及堆石料等粗粒土,总结了这三类土在基本力学特性及本构强度理论方 面的研究现状和发展趋势。饱和黏土部分主要包括压缩特性、剪切特性—临界状态及剪胀/剪缩 、结构性及其破坏、中主应力影响、各向异性及主应力偏转效应、不排水抗剪强度、流变特性 、微观力学解析模型等;砂土部分包括临界状态概念与剪胀性、砂土各向异性、应变局部化等 ;堆石料等粗粒土部分则以颗粒破碎对堆石料等粗粒土的力学性质的影响为主线,重点介绍了 颗粒破碎的度量方法、颗粒破碎对剪胀性、临界状态线的影响以及相应的本构模型、宏观-微观 的力学分析方法。