Effect of prepartum dry cow antibiotic treatment in dairy heifers on udder health and milk production

A high percentage of heifers calve with intramammary infections. One of the measures available to control intramammary infections is treatment with antibiotics before calving. In this study, the effects of prepartum treatment of nonlactating heifers with a 600-mg cloxacillin dry cow treatment on the prevalence of culture-positive milk samples at calving and 10 to 14 d in milk (DIM), the incidence of clinical mastitis, somatic cell count (SCC), and milk production during first lactation were quantified. A total of 184 heifers on 13 dairy farms were treated with antibiotics 8 to 10 wk before the expected calving date. Another 185 heifers served as untreated controls. Coagulase-negative staphylococci were the most frequently isolated group of bacteria in the treatment and control groups at calving (32 and 42%), and at 10 to 14 DIM (15 and 19%), respectively. The prevalence of minor pathogens at calving was lower in the treatment group compared with the control group (34 and 43%, respectively). Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequently isolated major pathogen in the treated and control heifers at calving (4 and 5%) and at 10 to 14 DIM (2 and 3%), respectively. The prevalence of major pathogens was lower in the treated heifers at 10 to 14 DIM compared with the control group (4 and 6%, respectively). Cumulative incidence risk of clinical mastitis during the lactation was 9 and 18% in the treatment and control groups, respectively. Treatment with cloxacillin 8 to 10 wk before calving resulted in a lower prevalence of culture-positive milk samples at calving and lower quarter milk SCC in early lactation [30,000 ± 4,600 (standard deviation) cells/mL in treated heifers versus 40,000 ± 4,600 cells/mL in control heifers], and was associated with lower average test-day SCC (55,000 ± 1,400 cells/mL in treated heifers versus 71,000 ± 1,500 cells/mL in control heifers) and lower incidence of clinical mastitis throughout lactation. The improved udder health resulted in a higher average test-day milk production in the first lactation (24.5 ± 3.2 kg in treated heifers versus 23.6 ± 3.1 kg in control heifers). Dairy farms with heifer mastitis problems need to analyze their mastitis management. Prepartum treatment of heifers with dry cow antibiotics may be helpful by decreasing the prevalence of mastitis-causing pathogens at calving and at 10 to 14 DIM.     

Stochastic modeling to determine the economic effects of blanket, selective, and no dry cow therapy

In many countries, blanket dry cow therapy (DCT) is the standard way to dry off cows. Because of concerns about antibiotic resistance, selective DCT is proposed as an alternative. The economic consequences of different types of DCT were studied previously, but variation between input traits and different types of pathogens were not taken into account. The goal of this study was to create a stochastic Monte Carlo model to simulate the dynamics of intramammary infections (IMI) around the dry period to predict the economic consequences of DCT for different types of pathogens (Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli). The traits used in the model can be varied. The probabilities within the basic situation were collected from the literature and, because not all information needed was available in the literature, by interviewing experts (n = 10). The expert opinions were translated into minimum, most expected, and maximum values for each of the different probabilities. For Dutch farmers, the costs associated with mastitis and mastitis control around the dry period varied between ∉10.61 and ∉26.61 (average ∉15.60) for blanket DCT, between ∉4.86 and ∉29.41 (average ∉13.72) for selective DCT, and between ∉4.08 and ∉42.60 (average ∉18.02) for no DCT. Although there were small differences between the treatment groups, the variation within the treatment groups was much larger. The major portion of the costs for selective treatment (59% of the total costs) and no DCT (82%) was derived from the costs of clinical mastitis after calving, and for blanket DCT, the costs of treatment (65%) exceeded the costs of clinical mastitis (27%). The cost of mastitis around the dry period was most sensitive to a change in the risk of new IMI during the dry period, spontaneous cure, and costs associated with the antibiotic treatment. The optimal decision to dry off cows depends on the attitude of the farmer toward risk and other farm-specific traits and probabilities such as the new IMI rate during the dry period. Therefore, it is necessary to make farm-specific calculations so that farmers are able to factor this information into their decisions when choosing the best DCT for their situations.     

Antimicrobial susceptibilities in dairy herds that differ in dry cow therapy usage

Intramammary infusion of antimicrobials at the end of lactation (dry cow therapy; DCT) is a central part of mastitis control programs and is one of the major indications for antimicrobial use in dairy cows. However, with increasing focus on prudent use of antimicrobials and concerns about emergence of antimicrobial resistance, the practice of treating every cow at the end of lactation with DCT is in question. This cross-sectional, observational study determined the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 10 antimicrobials for coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, and Streptococcus uberis isolates from milk samples from dairy cows with somatic cell counts >200,000 cells/mL in herds that had been organic for >3 yr (n = 7), or had used either ampicillin-cloxacillin DCT (n = 11) or cephalonium DCT (n = 8) in the preceding 3 yr. The organic herds were certified under the United States Department of Agriculture National Organic Program, meaning that there was no blanket DCT, and minimal use of antimicrobials in general, with a loss of organic status of the animal if treated with antimicrobials. Breakpoints (where available) were used to categorize isolates as resistant, intermediate, or susceptible to antimicrobials. The MIC distributions of isolates from different herd types were compared using binomial or multinomial logistic regression. Of 240 CNS isolates, 12.9, 0.8, 7.1, 32.6, and 1.2%, were intermediate or resistant to ampicillin, cephalothin, erythromycin, penicillin, and tetracycline, respectively. Of 320 Staph. aureus isolates, 29.0, 2.5, 1.2, and 34.9% were intermediately resistant or resistant to ampicillin, penicillin, erythromycin, and oxacillin, respectively. Of 184 Strep. uberis isolates, 1.1, 25.0, 1.6, and 1.6% were intermediately resistant or resistant to erythromycin, penicillin, pirlimycin, and tetracycline, respectively. Generally, the MIC of CNS and streptococcal isolates from organic herds were lower than isolates from herds using DCT. However, the differences in MIC distributions occurred at MIC below clinical breakpoints, so that the bacteriological cure rates may not differ between isolates of differing MIC. Bimodal distributions of MIC for ampicillin and penicillin were found in Staph. aureus isolates from organic herds, suggesting that isolates with a higher MIC are a natural part of the bacterial population of the bovine mammary gland, or that isolates with higher MIC have persisted within these organic herds from a time when antimicrobials had been used. Given these observations, further work is required to determine if exposure to DCT is causally associated with the risk of elevated MIC, and whether reduction or removal of DCT from herds would reduce the risk of elevated MIC of mastitis pathogens.     

Partial budget analysis of culture- and algorithm-guided selective dry cow therapy

The objectives of this study were to (1) use partial budget analysis to estimate the cash impact for herds that switch from blanket dry cow therapy (BDCT) to culture- or algorithm-guided selective dry cow therapy (SDCT) and (2) conduct a sensitivity analysis to investigate effects in situations where SDCT increased clinical and subclinical mastitis risk during the subsequent lactation. A partial budget model was created using Monte Carlo simulation with @Risk software. Expenditures associated with dry-off procedures and health outcomes (clinical and subclinical mastitis) during the first 30 d in milk were used to model herd-level effects, expressed in units of US dollars per cow dry-off. Values for each economic component were derived from findings from a recent multisite clinical trial, peer-reviewed journal articles, USDA databases, and our experiences in facilitating the implementation of SDCT on farms. Fixed values were used for variables expected to have minimal variation within the US dairy herd population (e.g., cost of rapid culture plates) and sampling distributions were used for variables that were hypothesized to vary enough to effect the herd net cash impact of one or more DCT approach(es). For Objective 1, herd-level udder health was assumed to be unaffected by the implementation of SDCT. For culture-guided SDCT, producers could expect to save an average of +$2.14 (?$2.31 to $7.23 for 5th and 95th percentiles) per cow dry-off as compared with BDCT, with 75.5% of iterations being ≥$0.00. For algorithm-guided SDCT, the mean net cash impact was +$7.85 ($3.39–12.90) per cow dry-off, with 100% of iterations being ≥$0.00. The major contributors to variance in cash impact for both SDCT approaches were percent of quarters treated at dry-off and the cost of dry cow antibiotics. For Objective 2, we repeated the partial budget model with the 30-d clinical and subclinical mastitis incidence increasing by 1, 2, and 5% (i.e., risk difference = 0.01, 0.02, and 0.05) in both SDCT groups compared with BDCT. For algorithm-guided SDCT, average net cash impacts were ≥$0.00 per cow dry-off (i.e., cost effective) when mastitis incidence increased slightly. However, as clinical mastitis incidence increased, economic returns for SDCT diminished. These findings indicate that when SDCT is implemented appropriately (i.e., no to little negative effect on health), it might be a cost-effective practice for US herds under a range of economic conditions.     

Short communication: Drying-off practices and use of dry cow therapy in Finnish dairy herds

The objective of this study was to survey drying-off practices and use of dry cow therapy (DCT) in Finland through an online questionnaire. The questionnaire was accessible to all dairy farmers of the Finnish dairy herd recording system in 2016 (approximately 5,400 farms). In total, 715 dairy producers across the country, representative of the Finnish dairy industry, participated in the survey. Cows were dried off gradually in most of the farms. Most farms (78%) reported using selective DCT, whereas 9% of farms did not use any DCT, and 13% of farms applied blanket DCT. A significant trend was observed with increasing herd size and proportion of farms using blanket DCT. Percentage of farms using blanket DCT was also higher in farms with automatic milking system. Farmer's own experience was the most commonly reported reason for choosing a particular approach to DCT. Microbiological testing of milk samples at dry-off was the preferred method of selecting cows for DCT; 82 and 64% of farms using selective and blanket DCT approach, respectively, reported testing milk samples before treatment. The second most common criteria for using antibiotic DCT were clinical mastitis history and high somatic cell count. A high number of farms using selective DCT reported treating only up to one-fourth of their cows at dry-off. Information acquired on drying-off practices in Finland allows for future monitoring of prudent antimicrobial usage at dry-off.     

Economic optimization of selective dry cow treatment

The objective of this study was to develop a mathematical model to identify a scenario with the lowest costs for mastitis associated with the dry period while restricting the percentage of cows to be dried off with dry cow antimicrobials. Costs of clinical and subclinical mastitis as well as antimicrobial use were quantified. Based on data from a large field trial, a linear programming model was built with the goal to minimize the costs associated with antimicrobial use at drying off. To enable calculations on minimizing costs of dry cow treatment on herd-level by drying-off decisions in an “average” herd, we created an example herd. Cows were projected on 3 different types of herds, based on bulk tank somatic cell count, and were categorized in groups based on parity and somatic cell count from the last test recording before drying-off. Economically optimal use of antimicrobials was determined while restricting the maximum percentage of cows dried off with antimicrobials from 100 to 0%. This restriction reveals the relationship between the maximum percentage of cows dried off with antibiotics and the economic consequences. A sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of variation in the most important input variables, with the effect of dry cow antimicrobials resulting in a lower or higher percentage of clinical and subclinical mastitis depending on being dried off with or without dry cow antimicrobials, respectively, and the milk price. From an economic perspective, blanket dry cow treatment seems not to be the optimal approach of dry cow therapy, although differences between approaches were small. With lower bulk tank somatic cell counts, more dry cow antimicrobials can be omitted without economic consequences. The economic impact of reducing the percentage of clinical mastitis was found to be much larger than reducing the bulk tank somatic cell count. The optimal percentage of cows to be dried off with antimicrobials depends on the udder health situation, expressed as the bulk tank somatic cell count and the incidence of clinical mastitis. For all evaluated types of herds, selective dry cow treatment was economically more beneficial than blanket dry cow treatment. Economic profits of selective dry cow treatment are greater if bulk tank somatic cell count and clinical mastitis incidence are lower. Economics is not an argument against reduction of dry cow antimicrobials by applying selective dry cow treatment.     

Evaluation of the use of dry cow antibiotics in low somatic cell count cows

The goal of dry cow therapy (DCT) is to reduce the prevalence of intramammary infections (IMI) by eliminating existing IMI at drying off and preventing new IMI from occurring during the dry period. Due to public health concerns, however, preventive use of antibiotics has become questionable. This study evaluated selective DCT in 1,657 cows with low somatic cell count (SCC) at the last milk recording before drying off in 97 Dutch dairy herds. Low SCC was defined as <150,000 cells/mL for primiparous and <250,000 cells/mL for multiparous cows. A split-udder design was used in which 2 quarters of each cow were treated with dry cow antibiotics and the other 2 quarters remained as untreated controls. The effect of DCT on clinical mastitis (CM), bacteriological status, SCC, and antibiotic use were determined at the quarter level using logistic regression and chi-squared tests. The incidence rate of CM was found to be 1.7 times (95% confidence interval = 1.4–2.1) higher in quarters dried off without antibiotics as compared with quarters dried off with antibiotics. Streptococcus uberis was the predominant organism causing CM in both groups. Somatic cell count at calving and 14 d in milk was significantly higher in quarters dried off without antibiotics (772,000 and 46,000 cells/mL, respectively) as compared with the quarters dried off with antibiotics (578,000 and 30,000 cells/mL, respectively). Quarters with an elevated SCC at drying off and quarters with a positive culture for major pathogens at drying off had a higher risk for an SCC above 200,000 cells/mL at 14 d in milk as compared with quarters with a low SCC at drying off and quarters with a negative culture for major pathogens at drying off. For quarters that were culture-positive for major pathogens at drying off, a trend for a higher risk on CM was also found. Selective DCT, not using DCT in cows that had a low SCC at the last milk recording before drying off, significantly increased the incidence rate of CM and SCC. The decrease in antibiotic use by drying off quarters without DCT was not compensated by an increase in antibiotic use for treating CM. Total antibiotic use related to mastitis was reduced by 85% in these quarters.     

Randomized noninferiority clinical trial evaluating 3 commercial dry cow mastitis preparations: II. Cow health and performance in early lactation

The objective of this randomized noninferiority clinical trial was to compare the effect of treatment with 3 different dry cow therapy formulations at dry-off on cow-level health and production parameters in the first 100 d in milk (DIM) in the subsequent lactation, including 305-d mature-equivalent (305ME) milk production, linear score (LS), risk for the cow experiencing a clinical mastitis event, risk for culling or death, and risk for pregnancy by 100 DIM. A total of 1,091 cows from 6 commercial dairy herds in 4 states (California, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin) were randomly assigned at dry-off to receive treatment with 1 of 3 commercial products: Quartermaster (QT; Zoetis Animal Health, Madison, NJ), Spectramast DC (SP; Zoetis Animal Health) or ToMorrow Dry Cow (TM; Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica Inc., St Joseph, MO). All clinical mastitis, pregnancy, culling, and death events occurring in the first 100 DIM were recorded by farm staff using an on-farm electronic record-keeping system. Dairy Herd Improvement Association test-day records of milk production and milk component testing were retrieved electronically. Mixed linear regression analysis was used to describe the effect of treatment on 305ME milk production and LS recorded on the last Dairy Herd Improvement Association test day before 100 DIM. Cox proportional hazards regression analysis was used to describe the effect of treatment on risk for experiencing a case of clinical mastitis, risk for leaving the herd, and risk for pregnancy between calving and 100 DIM. Results showed no effect of treatment on adjusted mean 305ME milk production (QT = 11,759 kg, SP = 11,574 kg, and TM = 11,761 kg) or adjusted mean LS (QT = 1.8, SP = 1.9, and TM = 1.6) on the last test day before 100 DIM. Similarly, no effect of treatment was observed on risk for a clinical mastitis event (QT = 14.8%, SP = 12.7%, and TM = 15.0%), risk for leaving the herd (QT = 7.5%, SP = 9.2%, and TM = 10.3%), or risk for pregnancy (QT = 31.5%, SP = 26.1%, and TM = 26.9%) between calving and 100 DIM.     

The use of an internal teat sealant in combination with cloxacillin dry cow therapy for the prevention of clinical and subclinical mastitis in seasonal calving dairy cows

Cows (n = 2,053) from 6 seasonally calving dairy herds were enrolled in a trial to compare the efficacy of 2 dry cow treatments. Cows received either a combination dry cow therapy of 600 mg of cloxacillin (CL) followed by an internal teat sealant (ITS) containing 2.6 g of bismuth subnitrate in all 4 quarters immediately following their final milking for the season, or only an intramammary infusion of 600 mg of CL. All cases of clinical mastitis were recorded and cultured during the first 150 d of lactation in each herd, and cow somatic cell count (SCC) was measured between 7 and 50 d postcalving. A large difference was found between treatment groups in the rate at which cows were diagnosed with clinical mastitis over the first 21 d of lactation, after which time the rate at which cows were diagnosed with clinical mastitis was similar between treatment groups. Analysis of the relative proportions of cows with clinical mastitis was performed at both the gland and cow levels. The relative risk (RR) of clinical mastitis diagnosed within 21, 30, and 100 d of calving in a gland treated with the ITS-CL combination was, respectively, 0.30 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.21-0.44], 0.39 (0.28-0.53), and 0.58 (0.46-0.75) that of the CL group. An interaction between treatment and previous SCC was found when clinical mastitis was analyzed at the cow level. In a subset of cows that had low SCC in their previous lactation, the RR of mastitis in cows with the ITS-CL combination within 21, 30, and 100 d of calving was, respectively, 0.54 (95% CI = 0.33-0.87), 0.57 (0.37-0.88), and 0.69 (0.50-0.99) that of cows that received only CL at drying off. In the subset of cows that had at least 1 high SCC in the previous lactation, the RR of mastitis in the ITS-CL combination group within 21, 30, and 100 d of calving was, respectively, 0.26 (95% CI = 0.16-0.44), 0.37 (0.24-0.57), and 0.72 (0.55-0.96) that of the CL-only group. The ITS-CL combination of dry cow treatments was associated with a reduction in subclinical mastitis [SCC ≥250,000 cells/mL; RR = 0.80 (95% CI = 0.65-0.98)] when compared with treatment with CL alone. The use of an ITS in combination with CL dry cow treatment was associated with significantly lower clinical and subclinical mastitis in the following lactation, with a greater difference found in cows that had a history of subclinical mastitis in the previous lactation.     

Staphylococcal intramammary infection dynamics and the relationship with milk quality parameters in dairy goats over the dry period

The objectives of this study were (1) to report the rates of new intramammary infection (IMI) and spontaneous IMI cure over the dry period in 3 dairy goat herds; (2) to evaluate the factors predicting infection dynamics over the dry period; and (3) to define milk quality parameter thresholds that predict infection dynamics over the dry period. Two consecutive udder-half milk samples were collected 10 to 14 d apart before dry-off from 288 goats in 3 herds, and 2 consecutive udder-half samples were collected 7 to 14 d apart in the following lactation, with the first sample being collected ≤10 d in milk, from 200 of the same goats. In 2 of the herds, udder-half milk samples were also collected at the same time points (n = 312 halves; 157 goats) for measurement of milk quality parameters. Standard aerobic culture of milk samples was performed for the detection of mastitis pathogens. To rule out the presence of Mycoplasma spp. IMI, milk samples were also cultured on modified Hayflick medium. Non-Mycoplasma isolates were speciated using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Staphylococcal isolates, when not identified by MALDI-TOF, were speciated using partial gene sequence analysis of rpoB or tuf. When >1 sample from an udder half yielded the same species, available isolates from the first and last positive samples for that species were strain-typed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Incidence of new IMI and cure rate were computed. Generalized linear mixed regression models were built to evaluate the associations between new IMI and pre-dry somatic cell score (SCS), between IMI persistence and half-level SCS, and between IMI persistence and pre-dry IMI species. Thresholds for pre-dry SCS and lactose concentration were computed to predict IMI persistence. Overall, 12.6% (48/380) of halves had a persistent IMI. Cumulative incidence of new IMI over the dry period was 13.2%, and cure rate was 52.0%. Pre-dry SCS was not associated with odds of new IMI or IMI persistence. Pre-dry IMI species was not associated with odds of persistence. Lactose concentration was not associated with odds of persistence. Regardless of culture data, the optimal pre-dry SCS threshold to detect IMI that would persist into the next lactation was 8.7, with sensitivity and specificity of 50 and 73.8%, respectively. Further studies on the effect of control measures on species-specific incidence and cure rates during the dry period are warranted.     

Meta-analysis of dry cow management for dairy cattle. Part 2. Cure of existing intramammary infections

The main goal of dry cow therapy (DCT) is to cure existing intramammary infections (IMI) at dry off. Although several published studies have estimated the cure rate of IMI after DCT, variation among studies is great, which makes it difficult to conduct a proper economic evaluation of DCT. The objective of the present meta-analysis of existing peer-reviewed literature was to provide a summary quantification of quarter IMI cure based on DCT. A meta-analysis relative risk (RR) was calculated per intervention and pathogen group when at least 4 studies were available for analysis per comparison from the 22 selected studies, according to the selection criteria. Results of the meta-analysis were examined using publication bias tests. Blanket DCT with a 95% confidence interval (CI) provided a 1.78 (1.51 to 2.10) times higher calculated cure rate from quarter IMI during the dry period up to 21 d postcalving, compared with no DCT. The RR of cure was similar when treatment was conducted for Streptococcus spp. IMI quarters compared with Staphylococcus spp. IMI quarters. The pooled RR with the 95% CI were 1.83 (1.48 to 2.35) and 1.65 (1.38 to 1.96), respectively. There was no significant difference between cloxacillin and other DCT products in the cure of quarter IMI during the dry period up to 21 d postcalving. The pooled RR with the 95% CI was 1.00 (0.92 to 1.09). Similarly, there was no significant difference between cloxacillin and other DCT products in the cure of quarter Staphylococcus spp. IMI. The pooled RR with the 95% CI was 1.00 (0.96 to 1.06). The pooled RR with the 95% CI of quarter IMI cure using selective DCT, compared with no DCT, was 1.76 (1.23 to 2.54).     

Evaluation of selective dry cow treatment following on-farm culture: Risk of postcalving intramammary infection and clinical mastitis in the subsequent lactation

The objective of the study was to evaluate the utility of a Petrifilm-based on-farm culture system when used to make selective antimicrobial treatment decisions on low somatic cell count cows (<200,000 cells/mL) at drying off. A total of 729 cows from 16 commercial dairy herds with a low bulk tank somatic cell count (<250,000 cells/mL) were randomly assigned to receive either blanket dry cow therapy (DCT) or Petrifilm-based selective DCT. Cows belonging to the blanket DCT group were infused with a commercial dry cow antimicrobial product and an internal teat sealant (ITS) at drying off. Using composite milk samples collected on the day before drying off, cows in the selective DCT group were treated at drying off based on the results obtained by the Petrifilm on-farm culture system with DCT + ITS (Petrifilm culture positive), or ITS alone (Petrifilm culture negative). Quarters of all cows were sampled for standard laboratory bacteriology on the day before drying off, at 3 to 4 d in milk (DIM), at 5 to 18 DIM, and from the first case of clinical mastitis occurring within 120 DIM. Multilevel logistic regression was used to assess the effect of study group (blanket or selective DCT) and resulting dry cow treatment (DCT + ITS, or ITS alone) on the risk of intramammary infection (IMI) at calving and the risk of a first case of clinical mastitis between calving and 120 DIM. According to univariable analysis, no difference was observed between study groups with respect to quarter-level cure risk and new IMI risk over the dry period. Likewise, the risk of IMI at calving and the risk of clinical mastitis in the first 120 DIM was not different between quarters belonging to cows in the blanket DCT group and quarters belonging to cows in the selective DCT group. The results of this study indicate that selective DCT based on results obtained by the Petrifilm on-farm culture system achieved the same level of success with respect to treatment and prevention of IMI over the dry period as blanket DCT and did not affect the risk of clinical mastitis in the first 120 d of the subsequent lactation.     

Effectiveness of an internal teat seal in the prevention of new intramammary infections during the dry and early-lactation periods in dairy cows when used with a dry cow intramammary antibiotic

The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of infusion with an internal teat seal at dry off, when used as an adjunct to long-acting antibiotic infusion at dry off, on the risk for acquiring a new intramammary infection (IMI) during the dry period, prevalence of IMI and linear score (LS) after calving, and risk for experiencing a clinical mastitis event between dry off and 60 DIM. A total of 437 cows from 2 dairy herds, with no clinical mastitis and 4 functional quarters, were enrolled at dry off. Prior to the final milking, all quarters were sampled for bacteriological culture and SCC analysis. After milking, all 4 quarters were infused with a commercially available long-acting dry cow antibiotic. Two contralateral quarters were then infused with an internal teat seal (Orbeseal, Pfizer Animal Health, New York). Following calving the teat seal was stripped out at first milking. Duplicate milk samples were collected between 1 to 3 DIM and again between 6 to 8 DIM for culture and SCC analysis. Quarters treated with Orbeseal had significantly lower prevalence of IMI at 1 to 3 DIM (tx = 22.8%, control = 29.1%), had significantly fewer quarters that acquired a new IMI between dry off and 1 to 3 DIM (tx = 20.2%, control = 25.4%), and had significantly fewer quarters affected by a clinical mastitis event between dry off and 60 DIM (tx = 5.9%, control = 8.0%). Multivariable analysis showed a significant effect of treatment, with treated quarters being 30% less likely to develop a new IMI between dry off and 1 to 3 DIM, 31% less likely to have an IMI present at 1 to 3 DIM, 33% less likely to experience a clinical mastitis event between dry off and 60 DIM, and having significantly lower linear score measures at 1 to 3 DIM and 6 to 8 DIM, compared with control quarters.     

The effect of internal teat sealant products (Teatseal and Orbeseal) on intramammary infection,clinical mastitis,and somatic cell counts in lactating dairy cows: A meta-analysis

The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of internal teat sealant products containing bismuth subnitrate (Teatseal and Orbeseal; Pfizer Animal Health, West Ryde, Australia) when used alone, or in the presence of antibiotic dry cow therapy (ADCT), before or at drying off on the incidence of new intramammary infections (IMI), clinical mastitis, and milk somatic cell count (SCC) during lactation. The literature search identified 18 English-language publications on the use of Teatseal in dairy cattle. A total of 12 studies with 17 subtrials or comparisons including 13 positive control subtrials (internal teat sealant and ADCT vs. ADCT) and 4 negative control subtrials (internal teat sealant vs. untreated) examining IMI were included in the analysis. Internal teat sealants, alone or in the presence of ADCT, reduced the risk of acquiring new IMI after calving by 25% [risk ratio (RR) = 0.75; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.67 to 0.83]. Internal teat sealants reduced the risk of IMI by 73% compared with untreated cows (RR = 0.27; 95% CI: 0.13 to 0.55). The results of both meta-analyses of IMI, with positive and negative controls, were heterogeneous [I² (a statistic that describes the proportion of total variation in study effect estimates that is due to heterogeneity) = 65.4 and 92.1%]. No farm or cow factors studied significantly contributed to the heterogeneity of the results. A total of 16 studies (21 subtrials), including 14 positive control subtrials and 7 negative control subtrials, examining clinical mastitis were included in the analysis. Internal teat sealants alone and in the presence of ADCT reduced the risk of clinical mastitis after calving in lactating cows by 29% (RR = 0.71; 95% CI: 0.62 to 0.82), and 48% (RR = 0.52; 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.75), respectively. The results of the meta-analysis on clinical mastitis with positive controls were homogeneous (I² = 33.6%), whereas the results of studies with negative controls were heterogeneous (I² = 60.4%). No farm or cow factors studied that had sufficient data to evaluate significantly contributed to the heterogeneity of the results. The estimated linear score (LS) of milk SCC after calving in published studies (n = 3) and for studies that provided raw data (n = 2), was significantly lower for cattle treated with internal teat sealants and ADCT in 3 studies than for cattle treated with internal teat sealants only. The estimated LS of pooled raw data of 3 studies from 32 herds showed that the LS of cows treated with internal teat sealant and ADCT was not significantly different than those treated with ADCT only. This study found that the application of internal teat sealants in the presence of ADCT or the use of internal teat sealants alone at dry off significantly reduced the incidence of IMI and clinical mastitis in lactating dairy cows compared with respective control groups. Further studies are needed to investigate the effect of internal teat sealants on postpartum milk SCC in lactating dairy cows.     

Residue concentration of cefquinome after intramammary dry cow therapy and short dry periods

Short dry periods and their effects on milk production, reproductive performance, as well as cow and udder health have been widely studied. A dearth of information is available about the consequences of short dry periods on the residue concentrations of dry cow antibiotics in milk after calving. The objective of our study was to determine the residue concentration of a dry cow antibiotic in milk after short dry periods during the colostrum period and early lactation. Quarters of 19 dry cows were treated with an intramammary (IMM) dry cow antibiotic containing 150 mg of cefquinome on d 21, 14, and 7 before calculated calving date. One quarter of each cow did not receive treatment and served as negative control. After calving, quarter foremilk samples were collected twice daily until 21 d and once daily until 36 d after IMM dry cow treatment (i.e., end of withdrawal period). A total of 588 foremilk samples from odd milking numbers were chosen for the determination of the residue concentration of cefquinome using HPLC–tandem mass spectrometry until the residue concentration fell below the limit of quantification (1 ng/g), which occurred at the latest in milking number 37. The dry period length of the treated quarters was categorized in 3 dry period groups ranging from 1 to 7 d (4.8 ± 2.4), 8 to 14 d (11.5 ± 2.3), and 15 to 26 d (19.5 ± 3.3; ±SEM), in dry period group 1, 2, and 3, respectively. In dry period group 1, the cefquinome concentration increased after calving until the third milking and decreased considerably until the fifth milking. In dry period group 2, the cefquinome concentration peaked at the second milking and decreased considerably until the fifth milking as well. There was no increase in cefquinome after calving in dry period group 3. Up to the 37th milking, the cefquinome concentration was higher in dry period group 1 than in dry period group 2 and 3. On average, 31.3 ± 1.2, 19.0 ± 1.1, and 6.7 ± 0.8 milkings and 19.4 ± 0.4, 20.6 ± 0.5, and 24.1 ± 0.7 d after treatment were necessary for the concentration of cefquinome to fall below the maximum residue limit (MRL) in dry period group 1, 2, and 3, respectively. These results indicate that shorter dry periods lead initially to higher cefquinome residues in milk. The residue concentration after experimental short dry periods still falls below the MRL within the recommended withdrawal period for milk of 36 d after IMM dry cow treatment. For the sake of food safety and economics, these short dry periods should not be used in the dry cow management, as they lead up to a maximum of 31.3 ± 1.2 milkings and 19.4 ± 0.4 d after treatment with cefquinome residues above the MRL. Therefore, a considerable number of milkings have to be discarded due to long withdrawal periods after calving.     

A comparison of broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum dry cow therapy used alone and in combination with a teat sealant

The dry period is a critical time in the lactation cycle, offering the optimum time for cure of existing intramammary infection (IMI), while also encompassing the periods of highest susceptibility to new intramammary infection. Until recent years, intramammary infection in the dry period has been controlled with the use of antibiotic dry cow therapy. The aim of this study was to investigate 3 different dry cow therapy regimens, in low-somatic cell count (SCC; bulk milk SCC < 250,000 cells/mL) herds in southwest England. A total of 489 cows was recruited to the study and randomly allocated to receive either the broad-spectrum antibiotic cefquinome, a combination treatment comprising the narrow-spectrum antibiotic cloxacillin and an internal teat sealant, or the narrow-spectrum antibiotic cloxacillin alone. All quarters were sampled for bacteriology at drying off and again in the week immediately postcalving; 2 quarters were also sampled 2 wk before the estimated calving date to allow an assessment of infection dynamics during the dry period. Quarters were subsequently monitored for clinical mastitis for the first 100 d of lactation. Conventional multilevel (random effects) models were constructed to assess the efficacy of products in preventing IMI. Survival analysis was used to examine factors that influenced the risk of clinical mastitis using conventional Cox proportional hazards models. No differences were identified between the treatment groups in terms of cure of IMI caused by the major pathogens. Quarters in both the combination and cefquinome-treated groups were more likely to be free of a major pathogen or enterobacterial pathogen postcalving. With respect to clinical mastitis, the cefquinome-treated group was less likely to develop clinical mastitis than was the cloxacillin treated group.     

Antibiotic use and potential economic impact of implementing selective dry cow therapy in large US dairies

In this study, our objectives were to evaluate the economic feasibility of implementing selective dry cow therapy (SDCT) in large US herds and to estimate the potential reduction in antibiotic use around the dry period if SDCT management is adopted. Cow-level data were obtained from the Dairy Herd Improvement Association (AgriTech, Visalia, CA) and individual dairy herds in California. Logistic regression models were used to predict the incidence risk of subclinical and clinical mastitis in the subsequent lactation for 96 last test-day somatic cell score categories. Linear programming was used to optimize the costs of dry cow therapy in 3 simulated large US dairy herds with different bulk tank somatic cell counts (BTSCC). The objective function was aimed at minimization of the total cost of mastitis around the dry period (TCMD), under a varying constraint of the maximum percentage of cows dried off with antibiotics. A sensitivity analysis was performed on milk price, dry-off antibiotic price, and risk ratio of mastitis in the subsequent lactation when no antibiotics and only teat sealant was used at dry-off. For all situations, blanket dry cow therapy was more expensive than SDCT. In a herd with medium BTSCC, the TCMD was $54.7 per primiparous dry cow and $58.5 per multiparous dry cow annually. In the optimal economic situation where SDCT was used, only 30% of primiparous cows received antibiotics, leading to a TCMD of $52.4 per primiparous dry cow, whereas 88% of multiparous cows received antibiotics, at a cost of $58.2 per multiparous dry cow. This corresponded with an overall reduction of 29% in the use of antibiotics around the dry period in a conservative scenario. This study showed that it is economically feasible to reduce antibiotic use associated with dry cow therapy in large US dairy herds. This contributes to the efforts of reducing antibiotic use worldwide.     

The effect of a shortened dry period on intramammary infections during the subsequent lactation

Several recent studies have investigated the effect of shortened dry periods on milk production in the subsequent lactation. What is lacking from these studies is an understanding of the effect that a shortened dry period has on udder health. Four herds, 156 cows, were studied to determine if a shortened dry period (30 d) had a negative effect on mammary gland health during the subsequent lactation as opposed to cows assigned to a long, 45 or 60 d, dry period. Cows in 2 herds were assigned to either 30- or 60-d dry periods (group I), whereas cows in the other 2 herds were assigned to either 30- or 45-d dry periods (group II). Intramammary instillation of commercial preparations of cephapirin benzathine, 300 mg (dry cow formulation), was given to cows assigned a 45- or 60-d dry period length protocol, and 200 mg (lactating cow formulation) was administered to cows assigned a 30-d dry period. Differences in response variables to dry period length were compared within group. Cure rates for 60- vs. 30-d dry period cows were 72% (28/39) vs. 81% (30/37) and 74% (25/34) and 73% (27/37) for 45- vs. 30-d dry periods. Differences were not statistically significant for either comparison group. The majority of intramammary infections were caused by the minor pathogens, coagulase-negative staphylococci (n = 102) or Corynebacterium bovis (n = 11). Only 11 cows had intramammary infections by major pathogens. The herd average percentage of new intramammary infections ranged from 6 to 9% and did not differ among herds between treatment groups. Linear somatic cell counts were not significantly affected by dry period length during the first 6 to 7 mo of the subsequent lactation. Milk production did differ between groups. Mature equivalent milk production was greater in group I cows given a 60-d dry period (11,942 ± 2,059 kg) as opposed to those given a 30-d dry period (10,749 ± 2,321 kg). Cows given a 45-d dry period did not produce more milk than cows with a 30-d dry period in group II. Although shortening the dry period to 30 d did not have untoward effects on mammary gland health as measured by intramammary infections or milk somatic cell counts, production may be adversely affected when dry periods are shortened to 30 d.     

Comparisons of milk quality on North Carolina organic and conventional dairies

The organic dairy industry is growing rapidly across the United States and has recently expanded into the southeastern states. To date, no published comparisons of milk quality exist between organic and conventional dairies in the Southeastern United States. Maintaining high milk quality is challenging in this region due to the longer periods of high heat and humidity. The objective of this observational study was to compare milk quality on organic and conventional dairies in North Carolina during the warm summer months of the year. Data were compared from 7 organically and 7 conventionally managed herds in North Carolina. To assess milk quality, milk samples were aseptically collected from each functional quarter of each cow in the milking herds at the time of sampling and linear somatic cell scores (SCS) were obtained for individual cows. A total of 4,793 quarter milk samples (2,526 conventional and 2,267 organic) were collected from 1,247 cows (652 conventional and 595 organic). Milk samples were cultured and bacterial growth was identified using protocols consistent with those of the National Mastitis Council (Verona, WI). Subclinical mastitis was defined as the presence of SCS ≥4 and also a microbiological infection in at least 1 quarter. The proportion of cows with subclinical mastitis did not differ between conventional (20.8%) and organic (23.3%) herds. No significant difference was observed between herd management types in the proportion of cows without microbiological growth in milk samples. Also, no significant differences were observed between organic and conventional herds for cow-level prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., or Corynebacterium spp. Two of the organic herds had a notably higher prevalence of Corynebacterium spp. and higher SCS. Coliforms were found in 5 of 7 conventional herds and in only 1 of 7 organic herds. Mean SCS did not differ between conventional (3.3 ± 0.2) and organic (3.5 ± 0.2) herds. Despite differences in herd management, milk quality was remarkably similar between the organic and conventional dairies compared for this study.