Milk production and nutrient digestibility responses to increasing levels of stearic acid supplementation of dairy cows

The objective of our study was to evaluate the dose-response effects of a stearic acid (C18:0)-enriched supplement on nutrient digestibility, production responses, and the maximum amount of C18:0 that can be incorporated into the milk fat of dairy cows. Multiparous Holstein cows (n = 32; 145 ± 66 d in milk) with a wide range in milk yield (30 to 70 kg/d) were blocked by milk yield and assigned to replicated 4 × 4 Latin squares. Treatments were diets supplemented with a C18:0-enriched supplement (SA; 93% C18:0) at 0, 0.80, 1.50, or 2.30% of diet dry matter (DM). Periods were 21 d with the final 5 d used for data and sample collection. Dry matter intake increased linearly as SA supplementation increased. Supplementation of SA had no effect on the yield of milk or milk components. Due to the increase in DM intake, SA linearly reduced the ratio of energy-corrected milk to DM intake. Supplementation of SA did not affect body weight. Increasing SA reduced digestibility of 16-carbon, 18-carbon, and total fatty acids (FA), with the reduction in digestibility of 18-carbon FA being approximately 30 percentage units from the 0.0 to 2.30% SA supplemented diets. Supplementation of SA linearly increased concentrations of preformed milk fatty acids (FA) but did not affect the yield of preformed milk FA. Yields of C18:0 plus cis-9 C18:1 were increased by SA supplementation; however, the increase from 0 to 2.3% SA was only 16 g/d. The concentration and yield of de novo and 16-carbon milk FA were unaffected by SA supplementation. In conclusion, increasing doses of SA decreased FA digestibility and had little effect on production parameters. Although SA increased the yield of C18:0 and cis-9 C18:1 in milk fat, it had no overall effect on milk fat yield. The lack of production responses to a C18:0-enriched fat supplement was most likely associated with the marked decrease in FA digestibility.     

Effects of fat supplements containing different levels of palmitic and stearic acid on milk production and fatty acid digestibility in lactating dairy cows

Fat supplements based on palmitic acid (PA) or stearic acid (SA) are expected to have different effects on milk production and nutrient metabolism in lactating dairy cows. In this study, the effects of prilled fat supplements containing different levels of PA and SA were tested in 12 high-producing multiparous cows (pretrial milk yield = 53.4 ± 8.7 kg/d; mean ± SD) arranged in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with 21-d periods. Treatments were control (CON; no supplemental fat), an enriched PA supplement (HP; 91% C16:0), an enriched SA supplement (HS; 92.5% C18:0), and a blend of PA and SA (INT) fed at 1.95% of diet dry matter. All supplements contained oleic acid at approximately 5% of fatty acids. The HP treatment decreased dry matter intake (DMI) by 1.9 kg/d and 1.1 kg/d compared with SA and CON, respectively. Milk yield was not changed by treatment, but INT increased energy-corrected milk by 2.7 kg/d compared with HS. The HP and INT treatments increased milk fat yield by 0.11 and 0.14 kg/d compared with CON, respectively. Additionally, HP decreased yield of <16 carbon fatty acids (FA; de novo synthesized) by 44 g/d and 43 g/d compared with INT and CON, respectively. The HP treatment increased 16-carbon FA (mixed source) by 155 g/d compared with CON and 64 g/d relative to INT. No effect of treatment on apparent total-tract digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, or neutral detergent fiber was detectable. The INT and HS treatments decreased total-tract digestibility of 16-carbon FA by 10.3 and 10.5 percentage units compared with HP, respectively. Total-tract digestibility of 18-carbon FA was lowest in the HS diet and highest with HP. In conclusion, supplementing PA increased milk fat yield compared with control and SA, but supplementing a mixture of PA and SA increased energy-corrected milk without decreasing intake. The FA profile of fat supplements influences their digestibility and effects on DMI and milk and milk fat synthesis.     

Feeding a C16:0-enriched fat supplement increased the yield of milk fat and improved conversion of feed to milk

Previous work has indicated that dietary palmitic acid (C16:0) may increase milk fat yield. The effect of a dietary C16:0-enriched fat supplement on feed intake, yield of milk and milk components, and feed efficiency was evaluated in an experiment with a crossover arrangement of treatments with 25-d periods. A fermentable starch challenge on the last 4 d of each period was utilized as a split-plot within period. Sixteen mid-lactation Holstein cows (249 ± 33 d in milk) were assigned randomly to treatment sequence. Treatments were either a C16:0-enriched (~85% C16:0) fat supplement (fatty acid treatment, FAT, 2% dry matter) or a control diet (CON) containing no supplemental fat. Diets containing dry ground corn grain were fed from d 1 through 21 of each period. On the last 4 d of each period, dry ground corn was replaced by high-moisture corn grain on an equivalent dry matter basis to provide a fermentable starch challenge. Response variables were averaged for d 18 to 21 (immediately before the fermentable starch challenge) and d 22 to 25 (during the fermentable starch challenge). We observed no treatment effects on milk yield or milk protein yield. The FAT treatment increased milk fat concentration from 3.88 to 4.16% and fat yield from 1.23 to 1.32 kg/d compared with CON. The FAT treatment decreased dry matter intake by 1.4 kg/d and increased conversion of feed to milk (3.5% fat-corrected milk yield/dry matter intake) by 8.6% compared with CON. The increase in milk fat yield by FAT was entirely accounted for by a 27% increase in 16-carbon fatty acid output into milk. Yields of de novo and preformed fatty acids were not affected by FAT relative to CON. The fermentable starch challenge did not affect milk fat concentration or yield. Results demonstrate the potential for a dietary C16:0-enriched fat supplement to improve milk fat concentration and yield as well as efficiency of conversion of feed to milk. Further studies are required to verify and extend these results and to determine whether responses are similar across different diets and levels of milk production.     

Combined effects of trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid, propionate, and acetate on milk fat yield and composition in dairy cows

Diets inducing milk fat depression (MFD) are known to alter ruminal lipid metabolism, leading to the formation of specific isomers [such as trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)] that inhibit milk fat synthesis in lactating dairy cows. However, ruminal outflow of these isomers does not fully account for the decreases in milk fat synthesis observed during diet-induced MFD. The high-concentrate diets inducing MFD also induce a greater production of propionate, suggesting a possible inhibition of milk fat by propionate associated with trans-10,cis-12-CLA during MFD. The present experiment aimed to study the combined effects of propionate and trans-10,cis-12-CLA (both inhibitors of milk fat synthesis) on milk fat secretion and the effects of the combination of 2 nutrients with opposite effects (acetate and propionate). Six Holstein cows were used in a 6 × 6 Latin square design with 21-d periods (14 d of nutrient infusion). The treatments were control; ruminal infusion of 1,500 g/d of acetate (A); ruminal infusion of 800 g/d of propionate (P); duodenal infusion of 1.60 g/d of trans-10,cis-12-CLA (CLA); ruminal infusion of 750 g/d of acetate + 400 g/d of propionate (A+P); and duodenal infusion of 1.60 g/d of trans-10,cis-12-CLA + ruminal infusion of 800 g/d of propionate (CLA+P). The amounts of nutrients infused were chosen to induce a similar variation in milk fat content. Treatments A and P decreased dry matter intake. Compared with the control, P and CLA treatments decreased milk fat content and yield by 9% and 15% on average. Treatment A increased milk fat content by 6.5% but did not modify milk fat yield (because of a decrease in milk yield). The effects of A and P, and CLA and P on milk fat and fatty acid percentages and yield were additive (A+P and CLA+P treatments). With a same dose of trans-10,cis-12-CLA, the additional supply of propionate induced a decrease in milk fat 40% higher than that induced by trans-10,cis-12-CLA alone. The milk fatty acid profile obtained with CLA+P was similar to those observed with high-concentrate diets inducing MFD. In conclusion, under our experimental conditions, the effects of the 3 nutrients were additive on mammary lipogenesis, regardless of their separate effects. We also show that propionate could contribute to the milk fat reductions unaccounted for by trans-10,cis-12-CLA during MFD induced by high-concentrate diets.     

Abomasal infusion of different exogenous emulsifiers alters fatty acid digestibility and milk fat yield of lactating dairy cows

We evaluated the effects of abomasal infusion of emulsifiers on fatty acid (FA) digestibility and milk production of lactating dairy cows. All emulsifiers examined were polysorbates, nonionic surfactants, consisting of a polyethoxylated sorbitan esterified with FA. The polysorbates tested in this study consisted of the same polyethoxylated sorbitan base but differed by the FA esterified to it. Eight rumen-cannulated multiparous cows (89 ± 13 d in milk) were assigned to a treatment sequence in 4 × 4 Latin squares with 18-d periods consisting of 7 d of washout and 11 d of infusion. Treatments were abomasal infusions of water only (CON) or 30 g/d of different emulsifiers as follows: polysorbate-C16:0 (T40), polysorbate-C18:0+C16:0 (T60), and polysorbate-C18:1 (T80). Emulsifiers were dissolved in water and delivered at 6-h intervals (total daily infusion was divided into 4 equal infusions per day). Cows were fed the same diet that contained (% diet dry matter) 32.1% neutral detergent fiber, 15.7% crude protein, 25.8% starch, and 3.32% FA (including 1.92% FA from a saturated FA supplement containing 34.2% C16:0 and 47.7% C18:0). The T80 treatment increased total FA digestibility compared with CON (5.40 percentage units) and T60 (3.90 percentage units) and tended to increase it compared with T40. Also, T40 tended to increase and T80 increased (4.80 percentage units) 16-carbon FA digestibility compared with CON. The T80 treatment increased 18-carbon FA digestibility compared with the other treatments. The T40 treatment tended to increase and T80 increased total FA absorption compared with CON (53 g/d) and T60 (52 g/d). Both T40 and T80 increased the absorption of 16-carbon FA compared with CON and T60. The T60 treatment did not differ from CON for any digestibility variable. Both T40 and T80 increased the yields of milk fat, 3.5% fat-corrected milk, and de novo, mixed, and preformed milk FA compared with CON. In conclusion, not all emulsifiers increased FA digestibility. Compared with CON, T80 increased the digestibility and absorption of total, 16-, and 18-carbon FA. The T40 treatment tended to increase and T80 increased total FA absorption and the yields of milk fat and 3.5% FCM compared with CON. Milk fat yield was increased by increases in de novo, mixed, and preformed milk FA. In our short-term infusion study, results suggest that the predominant FA present in the polysorbate affects its ability to improve FA digestibility. Overall, FA digestibility and absorption were improved the most when cows received the T80 treatment.     

The effects of adding fat to diets of lactating dairy cows on total-tract neutral detergent fiber digestibility: A meta-analysis

The objective of this meta-analysis was to determine the effects of supplemental fat on fiber digestibility in lactating dairy cattle. Published papers that evaluated the effects of adding fat to the diets of lactating dairy cattle on total-tract neutral detergent fiber digestibility (ttNDFd) and dry matter intake (DMI) were compiled. The final data set included 108 fat-supplemented treatment means, not including low-fat controls, from 38 publications. The fat-supplemented treatment means exhibited a wide range of ttNDFd (49.4% ± 9.3, mean ± standard deviation) and DMI (21.3 kg/d ± 3.5). Observations were summarized as the difference between the treatment means for fat-supplemented diets minus their respective low-fat control means. Additionally, those differences were divided by the difference in diet fatty acid (FA) concentration between the treatment and control diets. Treatment means were categorized by the type of fat supplement. Supplementing 3% FA in the diet as medium-chain fats (containing predominately 12- and 14-carbon saturated FA) or unsaturated vegetable oil decreased ttNDFd by 8.0 and 1.2 percentage units, respectively. Adding 3% calcium salts of long-chain FA or saturated fats increased ttNDFd by 3.2 and 1.3 percentage units, respectively. No other fat supplement type affected ttNDFd. Except for saturated fats and animal-vegetable fats, supplementing dietary fat decreased DMI. When the values for changes in ttNDFd are regressed on changes in DMI there was a positive relationship, though the coefficient of determination is only 0.20. When changes in ttNDFd were regressed on changes in DMI, within individual fat supplement types, there was no relationship within calcium salt supplements. There was a positive relationship between changes in ttNDFd and changes in DMI for saturated fats. Neither relationship suggested that the increased ttNDFd with calcium salts or saturated FA was due to decreased DMI for these fat sources. A subset of the means included measured ruminal neutral detergent fiber digestion. Analysis of this smaller data set did not suggest that ruminal neutral detergent fiber digestibility is depressed by fat supplementation more than ttNDFd. Adding fats, other than those with medium-chain FA, consistently increased digestible energy density of the diet. However, due to reduced DMI, this increased energy density may not result in increased digestible nutrient intake.     

Palmitic acid increased yields of milk and milk fat and nutrient digestibility across production level of lactating cows

The effects of palmitic acid supplementation on feed intake, digestibility, and metabolic and production responses were evaluated in dairy cows with a wide range of milk production (34.5 to 66.2 kg/d) in a crossover design experiment with a covariate period. Thirty-two multiparous Holstein cows (151 ± 66 d in milk) were randomly assigned to treatment sequence within level of milk production. Treatments were diets supplemented (2% of diet DM) with palmitic acid (PA; 99% C16:0) or control (SH; soyhulls). Treatment periods were 21 d, with the final 4 d used for data and sample collection. Immediately before the first treatment period, cows were fed the control diet for 21 d and baseline values were obtained for all variables (covariate period). Milk production measured during the covariate period (preliminary milk yield) was used as covariate. In general, no interactions were detected between treatment and preliminary milk yield for the response variables measured. The PA treatment increased milk fat percentage (3.40 vs. 3.29%) and yields of milk (46.0 vs. 44.9 kg/d), milk fat (1.53 vs. 1.45 kg/d), and 3.5% fat-corrected milk (44.6 vs. 42.9 kg/d), compared with SH. Concentrations and yields of protein and lactose were not affected by treatment. The PA treatment did not affect dry matter (DM) intake or body weight, tended to decrease body condition score (2.93 vs. 2.99), and increased feed efficiency (3.5% fat-corrected milk/DM intake; 1.60 vs. 1.54), compared with SH. The PA treatment increased total-tract digestibility of neutral detergent fiber (39.0 vs. 35.7%) and organic matter (67.9 vs. 66.2%), but decreased fatty acid (FA) digestibility (61.2 vs. 71.3%). As total FA intake increased, total FA digestibility decreased (R² = 0.51) and total FA absorbed increased (quadratic R² = 0.82). Fatty acid yield response, calculated as the additional FA yield secreted in milk per unit of additional FA intake, was 11.7% for total FA and 16.5% for C16:0 plus cis-9 C16:1 FA. The PA treatment increased plasma concentration of nonesterified FA (101 vs. 90.0 μEq/L) and cholecystokinin (19.7 vs. 17.6 pmol/L), and tended to increase plasma concentration of insulin (10.7 vs. 9.57 μIU/mL). Results show that palmitic acid fed at 2% of diet DM has the potential to increase yields of milk and milk fat, independent of production level without increasing body condition score or body weight. However, a small percentage of the supplemented FA was partitioned to milk.     

Abomasal or ruminal administration of flax oil and hulls on milk production, digestibility, and milk fatty acid profile of dairy cows

Four ruminally fistulated primiparous lactating Holstein cows were assigned to a 4 × 4 Latin square design to determine the effects of the site of administration (rumen or abomasum) of flax oil and flax hulls on diet digestibility and milk fatty acid profile of dairy cows. The treatments were 1) oil and hulls administered in the rumen and abomasal infusion of water (RUM/RUM), 2) oil and hulls infused in the abomasum (ABO/ABO), 3) oil administered in the rumen and hulls infused in the abomasum (RUM/ABO), and 4) oil infused in the abomasum and hulls placed in the rumen (ABO/RUM). Cows on the ABO/ABO and RUM/RUM treatments had the highest and lowest amounts of basal dry matter eaten, respectively. Higher dry matter digestibility was obtained when flax oil bypassed the rumen (ABO/ABO and ABO/RUM) compared with when flax oil was administered directly in the rumen (RUM/ABO and RUM/RUM). Apparent digestibility of ether extract was higher when flax hulls were administered in the rumen (RUM/RUM and ABO/RUM) compared with when flax hulls were infused in the abomasum (ABO/ABO and RUM/ABO). The lowest digestibility of acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber was obtained when both flax products were added in the rumen, which may be attributed to the high amount of oil present in the rumen (7.8% of total dry matter input). The lowest yield of 4% fat-corrected milk was obtained for cows on the RUM/RUM treatment, probably as a result of lower dry matter intake and digestibility of fiber. Milk concentrations of protein, fat, total solids, and lactose were similar among treatments. Administration of oil and hulls in the rumen resulted in the highest concentrations of intermediate products of biohydrogenation and total trans fatty acids in milk fat compared with the other treatments. All ratios of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids in milk fat were lower than the 4 to 1 ratio recommended to improve human health. These results suggest that the presence of both flax oil and flax hulls in the rumen decreases 4% fat-corrected milk yield and digestibility but provides a desirable fatty acid profile of milk to enhance consumers’ health.     

Effect of dietary antioxidant and increasing corn oil inclusion on milk fat yield and fatty acid composition in dairy cattle

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of a dietary synthetic antioxidant on feed intake, yields of milk and milk components and milk fatty acids (FA), in combination with increasing concentrations of dietary corn oil to provide increasing rumen unsaturated fatty acid load (RUFAL) challenges. Twenty-six Holstein cows (177 ± 57 d in milk; mean ± standard deviation) were assigned to treatment in a randomized complete block design. Treatments were a control diet (CON; n = 13 cows) or the same diet supplemented with a synthetic antioxidant (AOX; 6.1 g/d; dry blend of ethoxyquin and propyl gallate, Novus International Inc., St. Charles, MO; n = 13 cows). In period 1 (21 d), no supplemental corn oil was fed; in periods 2, 3, and 4 (14 d each), corn oil was supplemented at 0.7, 1.4, and 2.8% of the diet [dry matter (DM) basis] to incrementally increase RUFAL. For all variables measured, no significant interactions were detected between treatment and period, indicating no differences between the CON and AOX treatments at all levels of oil inclusion. Intake of DM was lower for AOX compared with CON but AOX had no effect on milk yield or milk fat concentration and yield. Milk protein yield and feed efficiency (energy-corrected milk/DM intake) tended to be greater for AOX compared with CON. Increasing dietary corn oil concentration (RUFAL) decreased DM intake, milk yield, milk fat concentration and yield, and feed efficiency. The AOX treatment increased the concentration and yield of 16-carbon milk FA, with no effect on de novo (<16 carbon) or preformed (>16 carbon) milk FA. Milk FA concentration of trans-10 C18:1, trans-10,cis-12 C18:2, and trans-9,cis-11 C18:2 were unaffected by AOX but increased with increasing RUFAL. In conclusion, supplementation with AOX did not overcome the dietary-induced milk fat depression caused by increased RUFAL.     

Technical note: Estimation of milk fatty acid yield from milk fat data

Most publications reporting milk fatty acid (FA) yields estimate these yields from milk fat yields and a coefficient estimating the proportion of FA in milk fat. The most widely used coefficient is, in fact, the proportion of fatty acyl radicals (i.e., FA from which the OH group has been removed) in milk triglycerides, equivalent to a mean proportion of 88% FA in milk fat. From a metabolic point of view, because the digestive flows and mammary FA uptake consist of nonesterified FA, it is more logical to estimate the FA proportion rather than the fatty acyl proportion in milk fat. From 588 milk FA profiles, we estimated a mean proportion of 94.4% FA in milk triglycerides. Moreover, when the other milk lipid classes (phospholipids, diglycerides, etc.) were taken into account, the proportion of FA in milk total lipids was estimated at 93.3%, almost independently of the milk FA profile. The use of this coefficient to estimate the secretion of milk FA on the basis of milk fat yield data is more physiologically relevant for milk FA secretion studies.     

Comparison of enriched palmitic acid and calcium salts of palm fatty acids distillate fat supplements on milk production and metabolic profiles of high-producing dairy cows

A variable response to fat supplementation has been reported in dairy cows, which may be due to cow production level, environmental conditions, or diet characteristics. In the present experiment, the effect of a high palmitic acid supplement was investigated relative to a conventional Ca salts of palm fatty acids (Ca-FA) supplement in 16 high-producing Holstein cows (46.6 ± 12.4 kg of milk/d) arranged in a crossover design with 14-d periods. The experiment was conducted in a non-heat-stress season with 29.5% neutral detergent fiber diets. Treatments were (1) high palmitic acid (PA) supplement fed as free FA [1.9% of dry matter (DM); 84.8% C16:0] and (2) Ca-FA supplement (2.3% of DM; 47.7% C16:0, 35.9% C18:1, and 8.4% C18:2). The PA supplement tended to increase DM intake, and increased the yields of milk and energy-corrected milk. Additionally, PA increased the yields of milk fat, protein, and lactose, whereas milk concentrations of these components were not affected. The yields of milk de novo and 16-C FA were increased by PA compared with Ca-FA (7 and 20%, respectively), whereas the yield of preformed FA was higher in Ca-FA. A reduction in milk fat concentration of de novo and 16-C FA and a marginal elevation in trans-10 C18:1 in Ca-FA is indicative of altered ruminal biohydrogenation and increased risk of milk fat depression. No effect of treatment on plasma insulin was observed. A treatment by time interaction was detected for plasma nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), which tended to be higher in Ca-FA than in PA before feeding. Overall, the palmitic acid supplement improved production performance in high-producing cows while posing a lower risk for milk fat depression compared with a supplement higher in unsaturated FA.     

Abomasal infusion of butterfat increases milk fat in lactating dairy cows

The objective of this study was to compare the effects of abomasal infusion of butterfat containing all fatty acids (FA) present in milk, including the short- and medium-chain FA, with infusion of only the long-chain FA (LCFA) present in milk, on the FA composition and milk fat yield in lactating dairy cows. Eight rumen-fistulated Holstein cows, in early lactation (49 ± 20 days in milk) were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design. Treatments were abomasal infusion of the following: 1) no infusion (control), 2) 400 g/d of butterfat (butterfat), 3) 245 g/d of LCFA (blend of 59% cocoa butter, 36% olive oil, and 5% palm oil) providing 50% of the 16:0 and equivalent amounts of C18 FA as found in 400 g of butterfat, and 4) 100 g/d of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, negative control), providing 10 g of trans-10, cis-12 CLA. Fat supplements were infused in equal portions 3 times daily at 0800, 1400, and 1800 h during the last 2 wk of each 3-wk experimental period. Daily dry matter intake and milk production were unaffected by the infusion treatments. Butterfat infusion increased milk fat percentage by 14% to 4.26% and milk fat yield by 21% to 1,421 g/d compared with controls (3.74% and 1,178 g/d). Milk fat percentage and fat yield were decreased by 43% by CLA. Milk protein percentage was higher (3.70%) in CLA-infused cows than in control (3.30%), butterfat (3.28%), or LCFA (3.27%) treatments. Although LCFA had no effect on fat synthesis, abomasal infusion of butterfat increased milk fat percentage and yield, suggesting that the availability of short- and medium-chain FA may be a limiting factor for milk fat synthesis.     

Effect of high-oleic-acid soybeans on production performance,milk fatty acid composition,and enteric methane emission in dairy cows

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of 3 soybean sources differing in fatty acid profile and processing method on productivity, milk composition, digestibility, rumen fermentation, and enteric methane emission in lactating dairy cows. The soybean sources were conventional, high-linoleic-acid variety extruded soybean meal (ESBM; 8.7% ether extract with 15% oleic and 54% linoleic acids); extruded Plenish (DuPont Pioneer, Johnston, IA), high-oleic-acid variety soybean meal (EPSBM; 8.4% ether extract with 73% oleic and 8% linoleic acids); and whole, heated Plenish soybeans (WPSB; 20.2% ether extract). The study involved 15 Holstein cows in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design experiment with three 28-d periods. The inclusion rate of the soybean sources in the diet was (dry matter basis) 17.1, 17.1, and 7.4% for ESBM, EPSBM, and WPSB, respectively, which resulted in ether extract concentration of the diets of 3.99, 3.94, and 4.18%, respectively. Compared with ESBM, the Plenish diets tended to increase dry matter intake and decreased feed efficiency (but had no effect on energy-corrected milk feed efficiency). The Plenish diets increased milk fat concentration on average by 5.6% and tended to increase milk fat yield, compared with ESBM. The WPSB diet tended to increased milk true protein compared with the extruded soybean meal diets. Treatments had no effect on rumen fermentation and enteric methane or carbon dioxide emissions, except pH was higher for WPSB versus EPSBM. The Plenish diets decreased the prevalence of Ruminococcus and increased that of Eubacterium and Treponema in whole ruminal contents. Total-tract apparent digestibility of organic matter and crude protein were decreased by WPSB compared with ESBM and EPSBM. Compared with the other treatments, urinary N excretion was increased by EPSBM and fecal N excretion was greater for WPSB. Treatments had marked effects on milk fatty acid profile. Generally, the Plenish diets increased mono-unsaturated (mostly cis-9 18:1) and decreased polyunsaturated, total trans-, and conjugated linoleic fatty acids concentrations in milk fat. In this study, compared with conventional, high-linoleic-acid variety extruded soybean meal, the Plenish soybean diets increased milk fat concentration and tended to increase fat yield, decreased feed efficiency, and modified milk fatty acid profile in a manner expected from the greater concentration of oleic acid in Plenish soybean oil.     

Duodenal infusion of glucose decreases milk fat production in grass silage-fed dairy cows

Four lactating dairy cows were arranged in a 4 x 4 Latin square design to study the effect of intestinal glucose supply on milk fat synthesis. Glucose (0, 443, 963, and 2398 g/d) was continuously infused in the duodenum over 14-d periods. Grass silage-based diets were formulated to be isoenergetic and isonitrogenous and met 100 and 110% of energy and protein requirements according to INRA (1989). Mammary uptake of nutrients was estimated through assay of arteriovenous differences and blood flow measurements. Glucose infusions decreased arterial concentrations of acetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and nonesterified fatty acids linearly and total glycerides curvilinearly. Milk fat yield was slightly decreased (- 52 g/d) between 0 and 963 g/d of glucose and milk fatty acid composition was modified by a marked decrease in long-chain fatty acids and an increase in de novo synthesis. The decrease in long-chain fatty acids, related to the decreased mammary uptake of plasma total glycerides, was likely due to a decrease in lipoprotein lipase and esterification activities. In regards to the evolution of metabolite concentrations in milk, the enhanced de novo synthesis and chain elongation was probably allowed by a greater availability of NADPH synthesized through pentose phosphate pathway. The greatest dose of glucose clearly decreased milk fat yield (-234 g/d). A mammary cell mediated intracellular reaction likely caused a homothetic decrease in milk fatty acids. However, reduced synthesis was not due to a shortage of glycerol-3-phosphate because its milk concentration remained unchanged. In conclusion, changes in exogenous glucose supply, in cows fed a grass silage-based diet, decreased milk fat production and modified milk fatty acid composition.     

Effects of monensin and dietary soybean oil on milk fat percentage and milk fatty acid profile in lactating dairy cows

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of monensin (MN) and dietary soybean oil (SBO) on milk fat percentage and milk fatty acid (FA) profile. The study was conducted as a randomized complete block design with a 2 × 3 factorial treatment arrangement using 72 lactating multiparous Holstein dairy cows (138 ± 24 d in milk). Treatments were [dry matter (DM) basis] as follows: 1) control total mixed ration (TMR, no MN) with no supplemental SBO; 2) MN-treated TMR (22 g of MN/kg of DM) with no supplemental SBO; 3) control TMR including 1.7% SBO; 4) MN-treated TMR including 1.7% SBO; 5) control TMR including 3.4% SBO; and 6) MN-treated TMR including 3.4% SBO. The TMR (% of DM; corn silage, 31.6%; haylage, 21.2%; hay, 4.2%; high-moisture corn, 18.8%; soy hulls, 3.3%; and protein supplement, 20.9%) was offered ad libitum. The experiment consisted of a 2-wk baseline, a 3-wk adaptation, and a 2-wk collection period. Monensin, SBO, and their interaction linearly reduced milk fat percentage. Cows receiving SBO with no added MN (treatments 3 and 5) had 4.5 and 14.2% decreases in milk fat percentage, respectively. Cows receiving SBO with added MN (treatments 4 and 6) had 16.5 and 35.1% decreases in milk fat percentage, respectively. However, the interaction effect of MN and SBO on fat yield was not significant. Monensin reduced milk fat yield by 6.6%. Soybean oil linearly reduced milk fat yield and protein percentage and linearly increased milk yield and milk protein yield. Monensin and SBO reduced 4% fat-corrected milk and had no effect on DM intake. Monensin interacted with SBO to linearly increase milk fat concentration (g/100 g of FA) of total trans-18:1 in milk fat including trans-6 to 8, trans-9, trans-10, trans-11, trans-12 18:1 and the concentration of total conjugated linoleic acid isomers including cis-9, trans-11 18:2; trans-9, cis-11 18:2; and trans-10, cis-12 18:2. Also, the interaction increased milk concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Monensin and SBO linearly reduced, with no significant interaction, milk concentration (g/100 g of FA) of short- and medium-chain fatty acids (<C16). Soybean oil reduced total saturated FA and increased total monounsaturated FA. These results suggest that monensin reduces milk fat percentage and this effect is accentuated when SBO is added to the ration.     

Milk production and nutrient digestibility responses to triglyceride or fatty acid supplements enriched in palmitic acid

The objective of our study was to evaluate the effects of feeding triglyceride and fatty acid (FA) supplements enriched in palmitic acid (PA; C16:0) on production and nutrient digestibility responses of mid-lactation dairy cows. Fifteen Holstein cows (137 ± 49 d in milk) were randomly assigned to a treatment sequence in a 3 × 3 Latin square design. Treatments consisted of a control diet (CON; no added PA) or 1.5% FA added as either a FA supplement (PA-FA) or a triglyceride supplement (PA-TG). The PA supplements replaced soyhulls, and diets were balanced for glycerol content. Periods were 21 d in length with sample and data collection occurring during the final 5 d. Compared with CON, PA treatments increased dry matter (66.5 vs. 63.9%) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) apparent digestibility (42.0 vs. 38.2%). Although PA treatments tended to increase 18-carbon FA apparent digestibility (79.1 vs. 77.9%), PA treatments decreased 16-carbon (63.1 vs. 75.8%) and total FA (72.0 vs. 76.5%) apparent digestibilities compared with CON. The PA treatments increased milk fat content (3.60 vs. 3.41%), milk fat yield (1.70 vs. 1.60 kg/d), yield of 16-carbon milk FA (570 vs. 471 g/d), 3.5% fat-corrected milk (47.6 vs. 46.5 kg/d), and energy-corrected milk (47.4 vs. 46.6 kg/d) compared with CON. The PA treatments did not affect dry matter intake (28.5 vs. 29.2 kg/d), milk yield (47.0 vs. 47.4 kg/d), milk protein yield (1.42 vs. 1.45 kg/d), milk lactose yield (2.29 vs. 2.31 kg/d), yield of <16-carbon milk FA (360 vs. 370 g/d), yield of >16-carbon milk FA (642 vs. 630 g/d), body weight (720 vs. 723 kg), or body condition score (3.14 vs. 3.23). We did not observe differences in digestibilities of dry matter, NDF, and 18-carbon FA between PA-TG and PA-FA. In contrast, PA-FA increased 16-carbon (68.6 vs. 57.6%) and total FA apparent digestibility (73.8 vs. 70.1%) compared with PA-TG. This resulted in PA-FA supplementation increasing the apparent digestibility of the PA supplement by ～10 percentage points compared with PA-TG. Compared with PA-TG, PA-FA increased 16-carbon FA intake by 60 g/d, absorbed 16-carbon FA by 86 g/d, and absorbed total FA by 85 g/d. Compared with PA-TG, PA-FA increased dry matter intake (29.1 vs. 27.8 kg/d), yield of 16-carbon milk FA (596 vs. 545 g/d), and tended to increase milk yield (47.6 vs. 46.4 kg/d), milk fat yield (1.70 vs. 1.66 kg/d), and 3.5% fat-corrected milk (48.1 vs. 47.2 kg/d). In conclusion, the production response of dairy cows to PA tended to be greater for a FA supplement compared with a triglyceride supplement. Overall, PA increased NDF digestibility, milk fat yield, energy-corrected milk, and feed efficiency in mid-lactation dairy cows.     

Compared with stearic acid,palmitic acid increased the yield of milk fat and improved feed efficiency across production level of cows

The effects of dietary palmitic and stearic acids on feed intake, yields of milk and milk components, and feed efficiency of dairy cows were evaluated in an experiment with a crossover arrangement of treatments with a covariate period. Cows with a wide range of milk production (38 to 65 kg/d) were used to determine if response to fat supplementation varied according to production level. Thirty-two Holstein cows (143 ± 61 d in milk) were assigned randomly to a treatment sequence within level of milk production. Treatments were diets supplemented (2% of diet dry matter) with palmitic acid (PA; 97.9% C16:0) or stearic acid (SA; 97.4% C18:0). Treatment periods were 21 d and cows were fed a nonfat supplemented diet for 14 d immediately before the first treatment period. The final 4 d of each period were used for sample and data collection. Milk production measured during the covariate period (preliminary milk yield) was used as the covariate. No interactions were detected between treatment and preliminary milk yield for the production response variables measured. Compared with SA, the PA treatment increased milk fat concentration (3.66 vs. 3.55%) and yield (1.68 vs. 1.59 kg/d), and 3.5% fat-corrected milk yield (47.5 vs. 45.6 kg/d). Treatment did not affect dry matter intake, milk yield, milk protein yield, body weight, or body condition score. Milk protein concentration was lower for PA compared with SA treatment (3.24 vs. 3.29%). The PA treatment increased feed efficiency (3.5% fat-corrected milk yield/dry matter intake) compared with SA (1.48 vs. 1.40). The increase in milk fat yield by PA was entirely accounted for by a 24% increase in 16-carbon fatty acid output into milk. Yields of de novo (3.2%) and preformed fatty acids (2.9%) were only slightly decreased by PA relative to SA. The PA treatment increased plasma concentration of nonesterified fatty acids (96.3 vs. 88.2 μEq/L) and glucose (56.6 vs. 55.7 mg/dL) compared with SA, but insulin and β-hydroxybutyrate were not altered by the treatments. Results demonstrate that palmitic acid is more effective than stearic acid in improving milk fat concentration and yield as well as efficiency of feed conversion to milk. Responses were independent of production level and without changes in body condition score or body weight. Further studies are required to test the consistency of these responses across different types of diets.     

Effect of dietary supplementation of sodium acetate and calcium butyrate on milk fat synthesis in lactating dairy cows

Acetate is a major source of energy and substrate for milk fat synthesis in the dairy cow. We recently reported a linear increase in milk fat yield and greater than a 30% net apparent transfer of acetate to milk fat with ruminal infusion of neutralized acetate. Additionally, ruminal acetate infusion linearly increases plasma β-hydroxybutyrate. The objective of the current study was to investigate the ability of acetate and butyrate fed in a diet to increase milk fat synthesis. Twelve multiparous lactating Holstein cows were randomly assigned to treatments in a 3 × 3 Latin square design with 14-d periods that included a 7-d washout followed by 7 d of treatment. Cows were fed ad libitum a basal diet with a low risk for biohydrogenation-induced milk fat depression, and treatments were mixed into the basal diet. Treatments were 3.2% NaHCO₃ (control), 2.9% sodium acetate, and 2.5% calcium butyrate (carbon equivalent to acetate treatment) as a percent of diet dry matter. Feeding sodium acetate increased dry matter intake by 2.7 kg, had no effect on milk yield, and increased milk fat yield by 90 g/d and concentration by 0.2 percentage units, compared with control. Calcium butyrate decreased dry matter intake by 2.6 kg/d, milk yield by 1.65 kg/d, and milk fat yield by 60 g/d, compared with control. Sodium acetate increased concentration and yield of 16 carbon mixed source fatty acids (FA) and myristic acid, while decreasing the concentration of preformed FA, compared with control. Calcium butyrate had no effect on concentration of milk FA by source, but increased concentration of trans-10 C18:1 in milk by 18%, indicating a shift in rumen biohydrogenation pathways. Our data demonstrate that milk fat yield and concentration can be increased by feeding sodium acetate at 2.9% of diet dry matter, but not by feeding calcium butyrate at an equivalent carbon mass.     

Models to predict milk fat concentration and yield of lactating dairy cows: A meta-analysis

Few models have attempted to predict total milk fat because of its high variation among and within herds. The objective of this meta-analysis was to develop models to predict milk fat concentration and yield of lactating dairy cows. Data from 158 studies consisting of 658 treatments from 2,843 animals were used. Data from several feed databases were used to calculate dietary nutrients when dietary nutrient composition was not reported. Digested intake (DI, g/d) of each fatty acid (FA; C12:0, C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C18:0, C18:1 cis, C18:1 trans C18:2, C18:3) and absorbed amounts (g/d) of each AA (Arg, His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp, Val) were calculated and used as candidate variables in the models. A multi-model inference method was used to fit a large set of mixed models with study as the random effect, and the best models were selected based on Akaike's information criterion corrected for sample size and evaluated further. Observed milk fat concentration (MFC) ranged from 2.26 to 4.78%, and milk fat yield (MFY) ranged from 0.488 to 1.787 kg/d among studies. Dietary levels of forage, starch, and total FA (dry matter basis) averaged 50.8 ± 10.3% (mean ± standard deviation), 27.5 ± 7.0%, and 3.4 ± 1.3%, respectively. The MFC was positively correlated with dietary forage (0.294) and negatively associated with dietary starch (?0.286). The DI of C18:2 (g/d) was more negatively correlated with MFC (?0.313) than that of the other FA. The best variables for predicting MFC were days in milk, FA-free dry matter intake, forage, starch, DI of C18:2, DI of C18:3, and absorbed Met, His, and Trp. The best predictor variables for MFY were FA-free dry matter intake, days in milk, absorbed Met and Ile, and intakes of digested C16:0 and C18:3. This model had a root mean square error of 14.1% and concordance correlation coefficient of 0.81. Surprisingly, DI of C18:3 was positively related to milk fat, and this relationship was consistently observed among models. The models developed can be used as a practical tool for predicting milk fat of dairy cows, while recognizing that additional factors are likely to also affect fat yield.     

A randomized herd-level field study of dietary interactions with monensin on milk fat percentage in dairy cows

This field trial evaluated the effects of dietary supplementation with 16 mg/kg (based on total dry matter intake) of monensin sodium on bulk tank milk fat percentage (MFP) of commercial dairy herds. Interactions between monensin and nutritional factors on MFP were studied. The trial was conducted in 47 Holstein dairy herds in Québec, Canada, between November 2005 and May 2006. The herd was the unit of interest. Enrolled herds were followed for a 7-mo period. Monensin treatment was randomly allocated in a crossover design where monensin was supplemented to the lactating dairy cow diet for a consecutive 12-wk period. Twenty-four herds were allocated to monensin treatment for the first period of trial, and 23 herds were allocated for the second period. Diet composition and ration physically effective particle level were collected every 8 wk. Milk fat percentage data were retrieved from weekly bulk tank measures. Data were analyzed in linear mixed models using repeated measures within herd where MFP was considered the outcome variable. In addition to the main effect of monensin treatment, the following covariates were forced a priori into all statistical models: treatment period, weekly herd mean parity, and weekly herd mean days in milk. The majority of herds were fed a total mixed ration (n = 29) and were housed in tie-stalls (n = 42). Monensin significantly decreased bulk tank MFP by 0.12 percentage points. The reduction of MFP associated with monensin was larger for herds having a diet high (>39.7%) in nonfiber carbohydrates, having a low level of physically effective particles in ration (>45.0%; ≥8 mm), and not feeding dry hay as first meal in the morning. Significant interactions between monensin and nutritional factors on bulk tank MFP were related to nonfiber carbohydrate and fiber concentrations in the diet.