BIORV-NSA: Bidirectional inhibition optimization r-variable negative selection algorithm and its application

The original negative selection algorithm (NSA) has the disadvantages that many “black holes” cannot be detected and excessive invalid detectors are generated. To overcome its defects, this paper improves the detection performance of NSA and presents a kind of bidirectional inhibition optimization r-variable negative selection algorithm (BIORV-NSA). The proposed algorithm includes self set edge inhibition strategy and detector self-inhibition strategy. Self set edge inhibition strategy defines a generalized radius for self individual area, making self individual radius dynamically be variable. To a certain extent, the critical antigens close to self individual area are recognized and more non-self space is covered. Detector self-inhibition strategy, aiming at mutual cross-coverage among mature detectors, eliminates those detectors that are recognized by other mature detectors and avoids the production of excessive invalid detectors. Experiments on artificially generating data set and two standard real-world data sets from UCI are made to verify the performance of BIORV-NSA, by comparison with NSA and R-NSA, the experimental results demonstrate that the proposed BIORV-NSA algorithm can cover more non-self space, greatly improve the detection rates and obtain better detection performance by using fewer mature detectors.     

Improved email spam detection model with negative selection algorithm and particle swarm optimization

The adaptive nature of unsolicited email by the use of huge mailing tools prompts the need for spam detection. Implementation of different spam detection methods based on machine learning techniques was proposed to solve the problem of numerous email spam ravaging the system. Previous algorithm used in email spam detection compares each email message with spam and non-spam data before generating detectors while our proposed system inspired by the artificial immune system model with the adaptive nature of negative selection algorithm uses special features to generate detectors to cover the spam space. To cope with the trend of email spam, a novel model that improves the random generation of a detector in negative selection algorithm (NSA) with the use of stochastic distribution to model the data point using particle swarm optimization (PSO) was implemented. Local outlier factor is introduced as the fitness function to determine the local best (Pbest) of the candidate detector that gives the optimum solution. Distance measure is employed to enhance the distinctiveness between the non-spam and spam candidate detector. The detector generation process was terminated when the expected spam coverage is reached. The theoretical analysis and the experimental result show that the detection rate of NSA–PSO is higher than the standard negative selection algorithm. Accuracy for 2000 generated detectors with threshold value of 0.4 was compared. Negative selection algorithm is 68.86% and the proposed hybrid negative selection algorithm with particle swarm optimization is 91.22%.     

A neural networks-based negative selection algorithm in fault diagnosis

Inspired by the self/nonself discrimination theory of the natural immune system, the negative selection algorithm (NSA) is an emerging computational intelligence method. Generally, detectors in the original NSA are first generated in a random manner. However, those detectors matching the self samples are eliminated thereafter. The remaining detectors can therefore be employed to detect any anomaly. Unfortunately, conventional NSA detectors are not adaptive for dealing with time-varying circumstances. In the present paper, a novel neural networks-based NSA is proposed. The principle and structure of this NSA are discussed, and its training algorithm is derived. Taking advantage of efficient neural networks training, it has the distinguishing capability of adaptation, which is well suited for handling dynamical problems. A fault diagnosis scheme using the new NSA is also introduced. Two illustrative simulation examples of anomaly detection in chaotic time series and inner raceway fault diagnosis of motor bearings demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed neural networks-based NSA.     

An efficient proactive artificial immune system based anomaly detection and prevention system

Artificial Immune System (AIS) is inspired from Biological Immune System (BIS) and demonstrates a lot of interesting facets and intelligence that include self-learning, self adaption, self regulatory, distributed with self/non-self detection capabilities. Due to these astonishing qualities AIS are predominantly used in anomaly detection where anomalies are treated as non-self that needs to be detected. Therefore, AIS appears appropriate for development of a proactive system to identify and prevent novel and unseen anomalies. This paper presents “An Efficient Proactive Artificial Immune System based Anomaly Detection and Prevention System (EPAADPS)” which embodies immune attributes to distinguish self and non-self in quest to identify and prevent novel, unseen anomalies. Negative Selection Algorithm (NSA) is a key AIS concept and is used for anomaly detection in various publications. Despite its relative success, detector selection and thereafter anomaly detection demands a more effective algorithm. This paper put forwards concept of self-tuning of detectors and detector power in NSA with the intension to make a detector evolve and facilitate better and correct self and non-self coverage. Thereafter, agents accompanying detectors collaborate and communicate between themselves to proactively discover correct anomalies and then take appropriate preventive measures. The performance of EPAADPS is contrasted with closely related state of art RNS algorithm using real valued representation and Euclidean distance. Experimental results revels promising EPAADPS performance which very comfortably outperforms the RNS. Furthermore, these results also demonstrate that EPAADPS shows remarkable resilience and intelligence in detecting novel unseen anomalies and with preventive measures to overcome the threat perception.     

An antigen space density based real-value negative selection algorithm

The negative selection algorithm (NSA) is an important detector generation algorithm for artificial immune systems. In high-dimensional space, antigens (data samples) distribute sparsely and unevenly, and most of them reside in low-dimensional subspaces. Therefore, traditional NSAs, which randomly generate detectors without considering the distribution of the antigens, cannot effectively distinguish them. To overcome this limitation, the antigen space density based real-value NSA (ASD-RNSA) is proposed in this paper. The ASD-RNSA contains two new processes. First, in order to improve detection efficiency, ASD-RNSA utilizes the antigen space density to calculate the low-dimensional subspaces where antigens are densely gathered and directly generate detectors in these subspaces. Second, to eliminate redundant detectors and prevent the algorithm from prematurely converging in high-dimensional space, ASD-RNSA suppresses candidate detectors that are recognized by other mature detectors and adopts an “antibody suppression rate” to replace the “expected coverage” as the termination condition. Experimental results show that ASD-RNSA achieves a better detection rate and has better generation quality than classical real-value NSAs.     

基于人工免疫原理的NIDS系统和有关算法设计

给出一种基于人工免疫原理的网络入侵检测系统(NIDS)模型．它以频繁序列模式为基础建立自体模式集和异己模式集，随后给出了一种有效的模式编码算法．在这种编码基础上文章提出一种用于检测器生成的集否定选择和克隆选择为一体的算法．最后给出算法复杂性分析。     

Clonal optimization-based negative selection algorithm with applications in motor fault detection

The Negative Selection Algorithm (NSA) and clonal selection method are two typical kinds of artificial immune systems. In this paper, we first introduce their underlying inspirations and working principles. It is well known that the regular NSA detectors are not guaranteed to always occupy the maximal coverage of the nonself space. Therefore, we next employ the clonal optimization method to optimize these detectors so that the best anomaly detection performance can be achieved. A new motor fault detection scheme using the proposed NSA is also presented and discussed. We demonstrate the efficiency of our approach with an interesting example of motor bearings fault detection, in which the detection rates of three bearings faults are significantly improved.     

How commercial involvement affects open source projects: three case studies on issue reporting

Whereas most research on Internetware has focused on new technologies for keeping track of a changing Internet,little attention has been paid to the software development process.A large portion of the software running the Internet is open source software.Open source software is developed both by volunteers and commercial companies,often jointly.Companies get involved in open source projects for commercial reasons,and bring with them a commercial software development process.Thus,it is important to understand how commercial involvement affects the software development process of open source projects.This article presents case studies of three open source application servers that are being developed jointly by a volunteer community and one primary software company.We are interested in better understanding developer behavior,specifically task distribution and performance,based on whether the developer is an external contributor,e.g.,a volunteer working in their spare time,or a commercial developer from inside the primary backing company who is being paid for their time.To achieve this,we look at issue reporting as an example of commercial involvement in open source projects.In particular,we investigate the distribution of tasks among volunteers and commercial developers by studying the source of reported issues and quantify the task performance on user experience via the issue resolution speed.We construct measures based on historical records in issue tracking repositories.Our results show that,with intensified commercial involvement,the majority of issue reporting tasks would be undertaken by commercial developers,and issue resolution time would be reduced,implying a better user experience.We hope our methods and results provide practical insights for designing an efficient hybrid development process in the Internetware environment.     

邻域形态空间多源免疫检测器生成与检测

人工免疫系统（artificial immune system,简称AIS）是人工智能技术的重要分支之一,被广泛应用于异常检测、数据挖掘、机器学习等多个领域.检测器是其核心知识集,其生成、优化和检测操作决定了人工免疫的应用效果.目前,人工免疫的问题空间以实值形态空间为主,但实值非自体空间“黑洞”、检测器生成速率慢、检测器高重叠冗余、“维度灾难”等问题,使得人工免疫检测的效果不甚理想.鉴于此,使用邻域形态空间,并改进邻域否定选择算法（neighborhood negative selection algorithm,简称NNSA）,引入混沌理论和遗传算法,提出了一种多源邻域否定选择算法（multi-source-inspired NNSA,简称MSNNSA）,并基于此提出邻域形态空间多源免疫检测器生成与检测方法,改进邻域形态空间下检测器的构造与生成机制,使其更具靶向性,并使获得的检测器具有更好的分布性,提高其生成效率和整体的检测性能,解决以上实值形态空间下存在的问题.实验结果表明,该方法提高了检测器生成效率以及检测的整体性能和稳定性.     

人工免疫中一种新的基因库初始化方法

在基于人工免疫的入侵检测研究领域,一般都是应用随机产生字符串的方法来生成检测器。这种方法生成检测器的速度较慢,而且生成的检测器集的检测率低。由于非我样本中存在着关于非我空间的信息,提出通过应用非我样本来初始化基因库并应用基因库来生成检测器的方法来检测入侵。应用KDD Cup 1999入侵检测数据集,通过实验证明该方法是有效的,能更快地生成检测率更高的检测器集。     

基于免疫的检测漏洞问题研究

针对已有实值非选择算法中检测漏洞问题,提出一种改进的算法提高对检测漏洞的覆盖。算法基于可变长实值检测器实现,主要思想是把自体样本分为边界自体样本和非边界自体样本。在检测器的生成过程中,鉴别和记录边界自体样本;在对新样本的检测过程中,检测是否匹配边界自体。通过人工合成数据集2DSyntheticData和实际Iris 数据集对算法进行了验证。实验结果表明,算法检测率较高,在覆盖自体和非自体边界处的漏洞方面明显优于已有的算法。     

基于改进负选择算法的异常检测

为解决基于负选择的异常检测算法中检测器数目和检测器对非我空间的覆盖二者之间的矛盾问题,采用粒子群优化算法(PSO)来优化负选择算法中随机产生的检测器的位置,从而实现用较少的检测器实现对非我空间更大的覆盖.在保证检测器尽可能小的覆盖自我空间的前提下,扩大检测器集合对非我空间的覆盖,并且在这个过程中检测器的数目是一定的.对正弦时间序列信号(artificial datasets)和轴承滚珠故障的振动信号(real-word datasets)进行了仿真实验.实验结果表明,该算法相对于原始的负选择算法在对非我空间的覆盖和检测率的提高方面有显著的效果.     

基于阴性选择原则的Non-self探测器生成算法

基于免疫系统异己检测原理，深入进行了计算机免疫系统探测器生成算法的研究．首先，简要介绍了阴性选择算法，总结了相关的探测器生成算法；然后，基于阴性选择原则提出了两种探测器生成算法，即位变异算法(BMGDGA)和余数生长算法(AGDGA)．文中对两种算法在多种不同的数据集上进行了全面的验证和实验，并与穷尽式探测器生成算法进行了全面系统的比较．结果表明，两种探测器生成算法在综合性能上均优于穷尽式探测器生成算法．     

一种基于受体编辑的实值阴性选择算法

受生物免疫受体编辑理论的启发,提出了一种基于受体编辑的实值阴性选择算法RERNS(Receptor Editinginspired Real Negative Selection Algorithm).对于匹配自体的检测器,该算法采用定向受体编辑使之获得新生,而这些新生的检测器分布在自体与非自体的边界区域,从而增加了检测器的多样性,并改善了算法对边界区域的覆盖情况;对于不匹配自体的检测器,该算法采用识别相同最近自体的定向受体编辑,使检测器在包含原检测范围的情况下扩大了对非自体空间的覆盖.理论分析和实验验证表明,与实值阴性选择算法中具有代表性的RNS算法和V-detector算法相比,RERNS算法生成的未成熟检测器更少,且检测性能更好.     

改进检测子生成算法在入侵检测中的应用

检测子生成是阴性选择算法(NSA)的关键步骤,现有检测子生成算法存在检测子生成效率不高、合格检测子冗余。针对该问题,改进检测子生成算法,对随机生成检测子进行二次耐受减少非自体空间的交叉覆盖区域,引入变异机制降低随机检测子与自体的碰撞概率。实验结果表明,改进算法对Probe攻击和DoS攻击的检测均优于NSA算法。     

基于免疫协作的P2P网络病毒检测模型

P2P环境提供了便捷的资源共享和直接通信,但也使病毒等获得了更为方便的传播和感染渠道.提出一种基于免疫协作的混合式对等网络病毒检测模型,利用对等节点间的协作实现记忆检测器的共享,通过在中枢节点建立疑似病毒库降低病毒检测的漏检率和误栓率.在检测器生成阶段,提出基于二次成熟的否定选择算法以降低检测器集的冗余度;在病毒检测阶...     

QoS-aware web service selection with negative selection algorithm

Web service selection, as an important part of web service composition, has direct influence on the quality of composite service. Many works have been carried out to find the efficient algorithms for quality of service (QoS)-aware service selection problem in recent years. In this paper, a negative selection immune algorithm (NSA) is proposed, and as far as we know, this is the first time that NSA is introduced into web service selection problem. Domain terms and operations of NSA are firstly redefined in this paper aiming at QoS-aware service selection problem. NSA is then constructed to demonstrate how to use negative selection principle to solve this question. Thirdly, an inconsistent analysis between local exploitation and global planning is presented, through which a local alteration of a composite service scheme can transfer to the global exploration correctly. It is a general adjusting method and independent to algorithms. Finally, extensive experimental results illustrate that NSA, especially for NSA with consistency weights adjusting strategy (NSA+), significantly outperforms particle swarm optimization and clonal selection algorithm for QoS-aware service selection problem. The superiority of NSA+ over others is more and more evident with the increase of component tasks and related candidate services.     

基于分级记忆策略的免疫算法

针对传统免疫算法在网络故障检测中存在的稳定性低、检测性能差等问题,提出一种基于克隆选择和免疫记忆机理的人工免疫系统算法。该算法调整未成熟检测器的补入方式,设计对检测器进行有效性评估的机制。给出依据评估结果对记忆检测器实施分级的策略,对各级别的检测器子群体采用不同的进化策略。实验结果表明,与传统算法相比,该算法的稳定性和检测性能都有一定改善。     

一种基于多级否定选择的入侵检测器生成算法

文中给出一种改进的基于人工免疫入侵检测系统的否定选择算法。首先是用多级否定选择算法生成不同检测尺度的成熟检测器,然后为了模仿人体免疫系统中的第二次应答机制,引入了记忆检测器的概念及相应的算法,结合亲和力成熟与体细胞突变等方法,将成熟检测器提升为识别率极高的记忆检测器。     

A Novel Radius Adaptive Based on Center-Optimized Hybrid Detector Generation Algorithm

Negative selection algorithm (NSA) is one of the classic artificial immune algorithm widely used in anomaly detection. However, there are still unsolved shortcomings of NSA that limit its further applications. For example, the nonself-detector generation efficiency is low; a large number of nonself-detector is needed for precise detection; low detection rate with various application data sets. Aiming at those problems, a novel radius adaptive based on center-optimized hybrid detector generation algorithm (RACO-HDG) is put forward. To our best knowledge, radius adaptive based on center optimization is first time analyzed and proposed as an efficient mechanism to improve both detector generation and detection rate without significant computation complexity. RACO-HDG works efficiently in three phases. At first, a small number of self-detectors are generated, different from typical NSAs with a large number of self-sample are generated. Nonself-detectors will be generated from those initial small number of self-detectors to make hybrid detection of self-detectors and nonself-detectors possible. Secondly, without any prior knowledge of the data sets or manual setting, the nonself-detector radius threshold is self-adaptive by optimizing the nonself-detector center and the generation mechanism. In this way, the number of abnormal detectors is decreased sharply, while the coverage area of the nonself-detector is increased otherwise, leading to higher detection performances of RACO-HDG. Finally, hybrid detection algorithm is proposed with both self-detectors and nonself-detectors work together to increase detection rate as expected. Abundant simulations and application results show that the proposed RACO-HDG has higher detection rate, lower false alarm rate and higher detection efficiency compared with other excellent algorithms.