Digital Architecture and Interface of the New ATLAS Pixel Front-End IC for Upgraded LHC Luminosity

A new pixel front-end integrated circuit is being developed in a 130 nm technology for use in the foreseen b-layer upgrade of the ATLAS pixel detector. Development of this chip is considered as an intermediate step towards super-LHC upgrade, and also allows having a smaller radius insertable pixel layer. The higher luminosity for which this chip is tuned implies a complete redefinition of the digital architecture logic with respect to the current ATLAS pixel front-end. The new digital architecture logic is not based on a transfer of all pixel hits to the periphery of the chip, but on local pixel logic, local pixel data storage, and a new mechanism to drain triggered hits from the double-column. An overview of the new chip will be given with particular emphasis on the new digital logic architecture and possible variations. The new interface needed to configure and operate the chip will also be described.     

Low Energy Dosimetry With Photon Counting Pixel Detectors Such as Medipix

Hybrid semiconductor photon counting pixel detectors like the Medipix detector have several advantages for an use in X-ray dosimetry. The noiseless photon counting principle allows to monitor low photon energies down to 3.5 keV. Due to the small pixel size (55 mum in case of Medipix2) dosimetry at very high dose rates is possible still processing each photon individually. The large amount of pixels in combination with the possible thickness of the sensor layer enables dosimetry at very low dose rates. A method has been developed to determine personal dose equivalents from the number of counts in energy deposition intervals measured with a semiconductor photon counting pixel detector, despite the strong influence of charge sharing effects among pixels. We tested the method experimentally by reconstructing the air kerma free in air for different qualities of X-radiation in the energy range below 150 keV with an accuracy better than 4%. We show that the response of a dosimeter based on a hybrid photon counting pixel detector can fulfill the IEC type testing requirements. The statistical precision is high due to the thickness and the large area of the sensor layer. We estimate that a dosimeter based on the Medipix detector will be able to cope with dose rates of more than approximately 57 Sv/h for mathdot Hp (0.07) or 19 Sv/h for mathdot Hp(10) . We outline the advantages and perspectives of using this kind of detector in a dosimeter in comparison to standard active personal dosimeters.     

Optimal Optical Conditions and Positioning Scheme for an Ultrahigh-Resolution Silicon Drift Detector-Based Gamma Camera

In this study, we optimized the optical conditions and associated positioning scheme for an ultrahighspatial-resolution, solid-state gamma detector. The detector module consisted of an array of seven hexagonal silicon drift detectors (SDDs) packed hexagonally and coupled to a single slab of crystal via a light guide glass. Because the optical behavior and requirements of the detector module and noise characteristics of the SDD sensor are different from those of conventional photomultiplier tube (PMT)-based detectors, the following parameters were studied to determine the optimum condition: scintillator selection, the effect of cooling on signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the depth dependence of the scintillation light distribution, and optimum shaping time. To that end, a modified, Anger-style positioning algorithm with a denoise scheme was also developed to address the estimation bias (pincushion distortion) caused by the excessively confined light distribution and the leakage current induced by the SDD sensor. The results of this study proved that the positioning algorithm, together with the optimized optical configuration of the detector module, improves the positioning accuracy of the prototype detector. Our results confirmed the ability of the prototype to achieve a spatial resolution of about 0.7mm in full width at half maximum (FWHM) for 122 keV gamma rays under the equivalent noise count (ENC) of 100 (e- rms) per SDD channel. The results also confirmed NaI(Tl) to be a more desirable scintillator for our prototype with an energy resolution performance of about 8%.     

Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Sensor Deposited on Integrated Circuit for Radiation Detection

Radiation detectors based on the deposition of a 10 to 30 mum thick hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) sensor directly on top of integrated circuits have been developed. The performance of this detector technology has been assessed for the first time in the context of particle detectors. Three different circuits were designed in a quarter micron CMOS technology for these studies. The so-called TFA (Thin-Film on ASIC) detectors obtained after deposition of a-Si:H sensors on the developed circuits are presented. High internal electric fields (10⁴ to 10⁵ V/cm) can be built in the a-Si:H sensor and overcome the low mobility of electrons and holes in this amorphous material. However, the deposited sensor's leakage current at such fields turns out to be an important parameter which limits the performance of a TFA detector. Its detailed study is presented as well as the detector's pixel segmentation. Signal induction by generated free carrier motion in the a-Si:H sensor has been characterized using a 660 nm pulsed laser. Results obtained with a TFA detector based on an ASIC integrating 5 ns peaking time pre-amplifiers are presented. Direct detection of 10 to 50 keV electrons and 5.9 keV X-rays with the detectors are then shown to understand the potential and the limitations of this technology for radiation detection.     

A novel multicell silicon drift detector module for X-rayspectroscopy and imaging applications

A novel 61-cell silicon drift detector module is proposed for high-counting rates and high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy and imaging applications at energies up to about 30 keV. Its hexagonal geometry with sloped sidewalls allows a buckyball arrangement. Up to 1860 cells of an active area of 5 mm² each can he reached at an average distance to the specimen of only 4.3 cm. An optimized electrical connection concept offers a vertical integration of a sensor array and signal processing electronics. Worst-case crosstalk of 0.3% (-50 dB) and signal loss of 7% (-24 dB) were derived from electrical field analysis. A sandwich of metal foils between the X-ray sensor and electronics reduces the dose of radiation at the electronics by more than eight orders of magnitude. Module-induced background fluorescence reaches its maximum at an incident energy of 13 keV, but remains below 10^-4 of the incoming photon flux at all energies. Three-dimensional (3-D) simulations on thermal module behavior show that the use of graphite as housing material allows an operation with spatial inhomogeneities of <1°C on the sensor's active area. Empirically, we found that the difference between the temperatures of the sensor and the heat sink depends linearly on the power dissipated by the electronics and sensor chip. The corresponding thermal resistances are 4.3 and 0.8 K/W     

Development of hybrid photon detectors with integrated siliconpixel readout for the RICH counters of LHCb

We report on the ongoing work towards a hybrid photon detector with integrated silicon pixel readout for the ring imaging Cherenkov detectors of the LHCb experiment at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. The photon detector is based on a cross-focussed image intensifier tube geometry where the image is demagnified by a factor of 4. The anode consists of a silicon pixel array, bump-bonded to a fast, binary readout chip with matching pixel electronics. The developments and tests of full-scale prototypes with 80% active area are presented. Specific requirements for pixel front-end and readout electronics in LHCb are outlined, and recent results obtained from pixel chips applicable to hybrid photon detector design are summarized     

CMOS APS数字模组辐射环境中的屏蔽加固

对互补金属氧化物半导体（CMOS）有源像素传感器（APS）数字模组的辐射耐受性进行了研究,设计并制造了屏蔽加固结构。利用蒙特卡罗模拟软件对屏蔽结构的材料、挡板尺寸以及前挡板开孔孔径进行了设计和计算,并对所设计屏蔽结构的屏蔽性能,加固前后传感器模组的工作寿命以及辐射损伤模式进行了实验研究。实验结果表明:所设计屏蔽结构能够使APS的工作寿命提高约1倍;屏蔽后,主板的受照剂量率约为无屏蔽时的1/3,但其工作寿命仅提高约1倍,这可能是由于模组上各器件的耐辐射性能以及受照剂量存在差异导致的;当辐照总剂量小于50?Gy时暗电流几乎无变化,当总剂量大于150?Gy后APS各像素的暗电流逐渐增大。      

多类图像传感器模组电离辐射损伤对比研究

为选择能用于γ射线辐照环境且最具有加固潜力的图像传感器模组,对比分析了7类传感器模组辐照前后实时采集明、暗图像的参数,研究了不同类型的模拟图像传感器模组及数字图像传感器模组的抗辐射性能,并讨论了辐射损伤机理。实验结果表明：γ射线对图像传感器模组的损伤及干扰程度与模组类型、图像传感器制作工艺、辐照剂量率及总剂量相关;剂量率造成的干扰与剂量率并非呈单纯的线性关系;镜头透镜的透光率随累积剂量的增大而下降;入射γ射线对采集画面质量的干扰与环境光线强度相关,较弱的真实信号更易被入射光子引入的噪声淹没。以上结果提示,入射γ射线对图像传感器的损伤及干扰主要是由各像素单元内暗电流以及正向脉冲颗粒噪声引起的。经实验分析,采用互补金属氧化物半导体（CMOS）工艺的数字摄像机更适用于γ射线辐射环境中的实时监测,但仍需通过加固手段提高其在辐射环境中工作的可靠性和使用寿命。     

新型望远镜带电粒子探测系统结构设计与理论模拟

为了在兰州重离子加速器国家实验室(HIRFL)的放射性束流线(RIBLL1)上开展基于完全运动学测量的远离β稳定线奇异核反应机制的研究,需研制一套由多个独立的望远镜系统(探测模块)组成的带电粒子探测阵列。每个探测模块包含1块16×16的厚65μm的双面硅条探测器、1块4×4的厚1 000μm的像素硅探测器和由雪崩光二极管(APD)读出的4×4CsI(Tl)阵列探测器。该探测阵列可实现大的能量测量范围、高能量分辨率和位置分辨,同时具备大立体角覆盖和粒子关联测量的能力。通过Geant4探测器模拟软件对单个探测模块进行模拟,结合对探测模块各部分的实验测试,给出了探测模块的设计方案和整体性能指标。     

高能X射线探测器射线串扰模拟研究

探测器的串扰噪声会对探测器的信噪比以及高能工业CT的图像质量产生很大的影响。本文利用EGSnrc程序模拟估算了CdWO4探测器模块的串扰噪声,并初步分析比较了影响探测器模块串扰噪声的各种因素。对在实际中选用和设计探测器模块有一定的指导意义,同时为利用软件修正探测器串扰噪声提供了理论计算参数。     

Calculation of pixel detector capacitances through threedimensional numerical solution of the Laplace equation

A method for the solution of the three dimensional Laplace equation is presented. The method applies to planar geometry cases, such as pixel detector devices, characterized by mixed boundary conditions. Through this algorithm the capacitances associated with pixel detectors are calculated. These capacitances, which are the pixel to substrate and the interpixel capacitances, are of great importance in the design of a pixel detector since they influence the noise and the cross talk effects between pixels. Capacitances for various pixel and interpixel dimensions are presented along with an analytical approximation for the calculation of the total pixel capacitance     

Caliste 64, an Innovative CdTe Hard X-Ray Micro-Camera

A prototype 64 pixel miniature camera has been designed and tested for the Simbol-X hard X-ray observatory to be flown on the joint CNES-ASI space mission in 2014. This device is called Caliste 64. It is a high performance spectro-imager with event time-tagging capability, able to detect photons between 2 keV and 250 keV. Caliste 64 is the assembly of a 1 or 2 mm thick CdTe detector mounted on top of a readout module. CdTe detectors equipped with aluminum Schottky barrier contacts are used because of their very low dark current and excellent spectroscopic performance. Front-end electronics is a stack of four IDeF-X Vl.l ASICs, arranged perpendicular to the detection plane, to read out each pixel independently. The whole camera fits in a 10 times 10 times 20 mm³ volume and is juxtaposable on its four sides. This allows the device to be used as an elementary unit in a larger array of Caliste 64 cameras. Noise performance resulted in an ENC better than 60 electrons rms in average. The first prototype camera is tested at -10degC with a bias of -400 V. The spectrum summed across the 64 pixels results in a resolution of 697 eV FWHM at 13.9 keV and 808 eV FWHM at 59.54 keV.     

Hybrid direct conversion detectors for digital mammography

Hybrid pixel detector arrays that convert X-rays directly into charge signals are under development at NOVA for application to digital mammography. This technology also has wide application possibilities in other fields of radiology and in industrial imaging for applications in nondestructive evaluation and inspection. These detectors have potentially superior properties compared to either emulsion based film, which has nonlinear response to X-rays, or phosphor-based detectors in which there is an intermediate step of X-ray to light photon conversion. Potential advantages of direct conversion detectors are high quantum efficiencies (QE) of 98% or higher (for 0.3 mm thick CdZnTe detector with 20 keV X-rays), improved contrast, high sensitivity and low intrinsic noise. These factors are expected to contribute to high detective quantum efficiency (DQE). The prototype hybrid pixel detector developed has 50×50 microns pixel size, and is designed to have linear response to X-rays, and can support a dynamic range of 14 bits. Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) is measured on a l-mm silicon detector system where 10% or better modulations are obtained at 10 lp/mm spatial frequency. Preliminary DQE measurements of the same system yields a value of 55% at zero spatial frequency. Here, the authors report data of their first full size prototype readout ASIC chips hybridized with both silicon and CdZnTe detector arrays and present initial MTF and DQE measurement results as well as some test images     

CdZnTe像素探测器的制备与表征

本文采用CdZnTe单晶制成像素探测器,并对其能谱响应特性及均匀性进行了系统表征。通过I-V和能谱响应测试,测定了晶体的电阻率和载流子迁移率与寿命的积,并用红外透过显微成像观察了晶体内Te夹杂的分布特性。采用光刻、剥离和真空蒸镀技术,在CdZnTe晶片上制备了8×8的像素电极,用丝网印刷和贴片技术通过导电银胶实现像素电极与读出电路的准确连接,制备出CdZnTe像素探测器。对像素探测器的测试表明,-300V下单像素最大漏电流小于0.7nA,对241 Am 59.5keV的能量分辨率可达5.6%,优于平面探测器。进一步分析了晶体内Te夹杂等缺陷对探测器漏电流和能谱响应特性的影响规律,结果表明,Te夹杂的聚集会显著增加漏电流,并降低探测器的能量分辨率。     

A novel radiation imaging sensor based on self-activated pixels

A new position sensitive detector for charged particles and X-rays is proposed based on pixels containing MOS transistors as preamplifiers. The output of the preamplifiers is shorted to strip buses to obtain two-dimensional information with readout requirements similar to a strip detector. The total pixel capacitance is low enough (20-40 fF) to allow a large potential increase at the pixel that collected the charge. The nonlinearity introduced by the large voltage rise effectively switches on the transistors of this pixel and leaves all the other pixels of the same line at a low transconductance state, resulting in an excellent noise performance     

Development of data acquisition and over-current protection systems for a suppressor-grid current with a neutral-beam ion source

Neutral beam injection is one of the effective auxiliary heating methods in magnetic-confinement-fusion experiments.In order to acquire the suppressor-grid current signal and avoid the grid being damaged by overheating,a data acquisition and over-current protection system based on the PXI (PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation) platform has been developed.The system consists of a current sensor,data acquisition module and over-current protection module.In the data acquisition module,the acquired data of one shot will be transferred in isolation and saved in a data-storage server in a txt file.It can also be recalled using NBWave for future analysis.The over-current protection module contains two modes:remote and local.This gives it the function of setting a threshold voltage remotely and locally,and the forbidden time of over-current protection also can be set by a host PC in remote mode.Experimental results demonstrate that the data acquisition and over-current protection system has the advantages of setting forbidden time and isolation transmission.     

Development of a compact DOI-TOF detector module for high-performance PET systems

To increase spatial resolution and signal-to-noise ratio in PET imaging,we present in this paper the design and performance evaluation of a PET detector module combining both depth-of-interaction(DOI) and time-offlight(TOF) capabilities.The detector module consists of a staggered dual-layer LYSO block with2 mm × 2 mm × 7 mm crystals.MR-compatible SiPM sensors(MicroFJ-30035-TSV,SensL) are assembled into an 8× 8 array.SiPM signals from both fast and slow outputs are read out by a 128-channel ASIC chip.To test its performance,a flood histogram is acquired with a ~(22)Na point source on top of the detector,and the energy resolution and the coincidence resolving time(CRT) value for each individual crystal are measured.The flood histogram shows excellent crystal separation in both layers.The average energy resolution at 511 keV is 14.0 and 12.7%at the bottom and top layers,respectively.The average CRT of a single crystal is 635 and 565 ps at the bottom and top layers,respectively.In conclusion,the compact DOI-TOF PET detector module is of excellent crystal identification capability,good energy resolution and reasonable time resolution and has promising application prospective in clinical TOF PET,PET/MRI,and brain PET systems.     

The Fermilab Collider Detector Facility Data Acquisition System

A detector is being constructed at Fermilab to investigate antiproton - proton collisions at up to 2 TeV center of mass energies. The detector will have approximately 75,000 channels of electronics with an expected occupancy of about 10% for typical events. The ultimate raw event rate is expected to be 50 KHz, with events being written to magnetic tape at a rate of 5 Hz. We are designing a FASTBUS based data acquisition system incorporating multiple processors running concurrently to do the necessary data compaction and filtering. Numerous local intelligences allow the system to be broken into independent subsystems for checkout and calibration.     

Detector Concept for OPET-A Combined PET and Optical Imaging System

The design of an imaging system capable of detecting both high-energy γ-rays and optical wavelength photons is underway at the UCLA Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging. This system, which we call optical PET (OPET), will be capable of non-invasively and repeatedly imaging small animal models in vivo for the presence of PET and optical signals. In this study, we describe the physical principles behind the operation of the OPET imaging system and discuss the design concept for one of the detector modules. Additionally, we demonstrate the operation of an initial prototype detector module for simultaneous detection and imaging of annihilation radiation and single optical photons emanating from separate sources. These results indicate that the construction of an imaging system based on this detector technology is feasible.