Influence of microarc oxidation and hard anodizing on plain fatigue and fretting fatigue behaviour of Al-Mg-Si alloy

The present study compares the performance of microarc oxidation (MAO) and hard anodizing (HA) treated Al-Mg-Si alloy (AA6063) test samples under cyclic loading in uniaxial tension with a stress ratio of 0.1 (plain fatigue) and fretting fatigue loading. Fatigue test specimens were treated using MAO and HA techniques. MAO coated specimens were ground to reduce the surface roughness comparable with that in HA coated specimens. In that process the porous outer layer was removed. Characterization of coated and uncoated specimens was done with reference to the coating morphology, microhardness, surface roughness and residual stress. The specimens were tested under plain fatigue and fretting fatigue loading at ambient temperature. While the ground MAO coating exhibited relatively less amount of porosity, HA coating had through thickness cracks. MAO coating had compressive residual stress and it was very hard compared with HA coating. Both types of coated samples exhibited slightly higher friction force than that experienced by the uncoated specimens. Fretted region of the HA coated samples was rougher than that of the MAO coated specimens. Plain fatigue lives of both coated samples were inferior to those of the uncoated specimens. The inferior plain fatigue lives of MAO coated specimens compared with those of the substrate may be attributed to the tensile residual stresses supposedly present in the substrate leading to an early crack initiation in the substrate adjacent to the coating. As friction force of MAO coated samples was higher than that experienced by uncoated specimens, the fretting fatigue lives of MAO coated samples were slightly inferior to those of uncoated samples. As the anodized layer had preexisting through thickness cracks and strong adhesion with the substrate, cracks propagated from HA coating through the interface into the substrate easily. This may be the reason for the HA coated samples exhibiting inferior plain fatigue and fretting fatigue lives compared with MAO coated and uncoated samples.     

Effects of plastic strain of diamond-like carbon coated stainless steel on the corrosion behavior in simulated body fluid environment

We have investigated the effect of plastic deformation of diamond-like carbon (DLC) coated and uncoated stainless steel on the corrosion resistance in a simulated body fluid environment to measure its protective efficiency as a biomedical coating material. We deposited the DLC film on 304 stainless steel specimens by radio frequency plasma assisted chemical vapor deposition(R.F.-PACVD) method, followed by a tensile test to apply plastic strain on the coated specimen. Corrosion behavior in the simulated body fluid environment was studied by a potentiodynamic polarization test. As the tensile deformation progressed, the cracks of the film were observed to be perpendicular to the tensile axis. Further deformation increased both cracking and the spallation. Estimated porosity and corrosion current density increased, and thus the protective efficiency decreased at a strain of 2%. In spite of the degradation, the anti-corrosion properties were significantly improved relative to the uncoated stainless steel. However, a significant increase in porosity and corrosion current density was observed at a strain of 4%. This study showed that increasing the thickness of the Si interlayer of film improved the corrosion resistance with reduction of spallations and cracks.     

Ti/TiN/Zr/ZrN多层膜对1Cr17Ni2不锈钢疲劳性能的影响

采用真空阴极电弧沉积技术在1Cr17Ni2马氏体型不锈钢表面沉积Ti/TiN/Zr/ZrN多层膜。研究对比了在室温下膜层试样与基体试样的旋转弯曲疲劳强度、疲劳寿命和疲劳断裂机理。结果表明:在不锈钢基体上沉积厚度为11.7μm,硬度为3 220HV0.025,膜/基结合力为56N的Ti/TiN/Zr/ZrN多层膜后,其疲劳性能显著提高,膜层试样较基体试样的疲劳极限提高了约11.2%,当应力水平在540～650 MPa变化时,疲劳寿命增量变化范围为108%～246%;裂纹均起源于表面,在低应力水平下只有一个裂纹源,而高应力水平下有多个裂纹源;疲劳性能的提高主要是由于膜层能够弥补基体表面一定的缺陷,同时软硬交替的膜层结构有较强的抗裂纹扩展能力。     

热镀锌合金化镀层裂纹的产生与扩展机理

用配备拉伸／三点弯曲试验装置的SEM原位观察分析了热镀锌合金化钢板变形时镀层中裂纹产生、扩展、镀层断裂及在塑性变形过程中镀层与钢基体界面的交互作用。结果表明,在拉应力作用下,镀层的破坏可以分为两个过程：第一阶段主要表现为粉化;第二阶段主要表现为剥落。镀层在复合应力作用下的断裂并非沿着某一固定的界面发生,而是在载荷作用的...     

Tribological Behaviour and Cutting Performance of PVD-TiN Coating/Substrate System with Discontinuous Surface Architecture

TiN coating was deposited by arc evaporation PVD (physical vapor deposition) onto tool steel. A netted screen made of the stainless steel was placed between substrate and vaporizer in order to get discontinuous TiN coatings. Three kinds of surface condition (uncoated, continuous and discontinuous TiN coatings) were prepared and examined for their performance. Tribological behavior was investigated by means of dry and lubricated sliding tests at room temperature and 200 °C, on a disk-on-block and sphere-on-flat tribometer. The results show that the discontinuous TiN coating significantly decreases both the wear and the wearing speed of tool steel under sliding tests, and reduces friction under conditions of bidirectional sliding. In the three kinds of surface condition, the discontinuously coating has superiority for high speed cutting owing to its lifetime increasing compared with uncoated and continuously coated.     

Interface fracture behavior of zinc coatings on steel: Experiments and finite element calculations

Hot-dipped galvanized steels are widely used in the automotive industry. The formability and damage resistance of zinc coatings depend strongly on their microstructure and adhesion to the steel substrate. In order to improve the mechanical performance of zinc coatings, the influence of their thickness, grain orientation and grain size on the zinc coating/steel substrate interface cracking behavior was studied. To this end, scanning electron microscopic observations during in situ tensile testing of zinc coated IF steel sheets were performed. After partial delamination of the zinc coating, cross sections of zinc coated steel were prepared to determine the location and extent of the interface cracking and the crystallographic orientation of the delaminated zinc grains. A two-grain model using a finite element method is proposed to analyze the zinc coating/steel substrate interface cracking behavior. In addition, the coating adhesion strength can be estimated based on this model. Both calculations and experimental observations show that: (i) a preferential zinc grain orientation with the [0001] direction parallel to the interface and (ii) a small grain size mitigate zinc coating/steel substrate interface cracking.     

Fatigue performance of a SAE 1045 steel coated with a Colmonoy 88 alloy deposited by HVOF thermal spraying

The present investigation has been conducted to study the fatigue behavior of a SAE 1045 steel both uncoated and coated with a Colmonoy 88 alloy (NiCrBSiW) of approximately 410 μm thick, deposited by HVOF thermal spraying. Previously to deposition the samples were grit-blasted with alumina particles of approximately 1 mm in equivalent diameter. Tensile and fatigue tests were carried out with the uncoated and coated specimens. Fatigue tests were conducted under rotating bending conditions (R = − 1) at a frequency of 50 Hz. The samples tested were in three different surface conditions, including polished, grit-blasted and coated. The fatigue limit was determined by means of the staircase method employing a stress step of 5 MPa. The results indicate that the presence of the coating gives rise to a reduction in the fatigue life of the coated samples tested in air in comparison with the uncoated specimens. On the contrary, when the coated samples were tested in a NaCl solution at alternating stresses less than 350 MPa, these showed an increase in fatigue life in comparison with the polished uncoated samples. The analysis of the fracture surfaces of the specimens tested in air revealed that alumina particles present on the surface of the grit-blasted samples acted as stress concentrators, inducing the nucleation of fatigue cracks at the substrate-coating interface, which explains the reduction in fatigue life. However, under corrosive conditions and low alternating stresses, the presence of the coating provides an effective protection against corrosion-fatigue failures, giving rise to an improvement of the corrosion-fatigue performance of the coated system. On the contrary, at elevated alternating stresses, the coating was observed to delaminate from the substrate, leading to an impairment of the corrosion-fatigue behavior of the coated samples.     

合金钢热障涂层等离子喷涂及高温力学特性研究

目的研究等离子喷涂热障涂层微观组织与高温力学性能,为热障涂层在合金钢的应用及其失效机制提供理论支撑。方法采用等离子喷涂技术在30Cr Mn Si A钢基体上制备Ni Co Cr Al Y/YSZ热障涂层,利用扫描电镜显微观察、物相分析、热震试验、拉伸试验等技术方法,考察涂层在高温条件下的失效行为。结果合金钢等离子喷涂热障涂层为典型双层层片状结构,YSZ涂层仅含有稳定四方相。800℃时,涂层试样拉伸试验后的断裂载荷与无涂层试样相比高10%。热障涂层的抗热震性良好,经900℃热震循环试验10次后,涂层完好;经1000℃热震循环6次后,涂层剥落失效,剥落面位于粘结层与基体之间。热震循环过程中,钢基体被氧化甚至腐蚀。涂层试样边缘产生应力集中,随着热震次数的增加,裂纹逐渐扩展,最终导致涂层成块剥落。温度由700℃升至900℃,Ni Co Cr Al Y涂层硬度下降幅度大于YSZ涂层和30Cr Mn Si基体。结论粘结层与钢合金基体的热膨胀不匹配是导致热震试验涂层剥落的主要原因。热障涂层的隔热作用使涂层试样的基体温度较低,导致其断裂载荷与无涂层试样相比较高。     

Effect of spray distance on the corrosion-fatigue behavior of a medium-carbon steel coated with a Colmonoy 88 alloy deposited by HVOF thermal spray

The present work has been conducted in order to determine the influence of the spray distance, on the corrosion-fatigue behavior of a SAE 1045 steel substrate coated with a Ni base coating deposited by high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray. The spray distances employed in the present investigation were of 380, 425 and 470 mm. The mechanical properties of the coated systems were evaluated by means of tensile and corrosion-fatigue tests conducted with cylindrical samples. Corrosion-fatigue tests were carried out under rotating bending conditions (R = − 1), at a frequency of 50 Hz and maximum alternating stresses in the range of 250-420 MPa, employing a 3 wt.% NaCl solution. The results indicate that varying the spray distance in the range of 380-470 mm has apparently no significant influence on the corrosion-fatigue behavior of the coated systems. However, the presence of the Ni base coating gives rise to a significant increase in the corrosion-fatigue life of the coated substrate, in comparison with the uncoated steel. Such an increase varies between ∼ 90 and 440% in the interval of maximum alternating stresses investigated in the present work. Also, the coated systems exhibited a better corrosion-fatigue performance in comparison with the same steel substrate coated with an electrolytic hard chromium (EHC) deposit.     

Effects of electrodeposited zinc coating on the formability of drawing-quality aluminum-killed sheet steel

Although sheet formability depends significantly on the properties of the base metal, surface coatings used for corrosion protection can affect the friction at the tool/sheet interface and, therefore, influence the amount of deformation. In an effort to better understand the effects of surface coatings on formability, limiting dome height testing was done on samples of drawing- quality aluminum- killed sheet steel with laboratory- produced electrodeposited zinc coatings of different characteristics. The results showed that the formability of zinc- coated products was reduced compared to the uncoated steel in all strain states. It was also shown that zinc coating crystallographic texture strongly influences sheet forming behavior and may be as important a parameter as surface roughness in friction characterization. The material in this article is intended for general information only. Any use of this material in relation to any specific application should be based on independent examination and verification of its unrestricted availability for such use and a determination of suitability for the application by professionally qualified personnel. No license under any USX Corporation patents or other proprietary interest is implied by the publication of this paper. Those making use of or relying upon the material assume all risks and liability arising from such use or reliance.     

1 500 MPa级铝硅镀层热成形钢的试制及质量评价

为开发1 500 MPa级铝硅镀层热成形钢,采用连退模拟器模拟了 5种退火涂镀工艺,采用拉伸试验机、金相显微镜检测样板力学性能、金相组织及镀层组织,以确定最优退火、涂镀工艺;针对试验中的漏镀缺陷,分析了其产生原因.结果表明,在带钢运行速度为80 m/min,加热温度为770℃,快冷温度为650℃的工艺下,铝硅镀层CR1...     

Experimental and finite element analysis for fracture of coating layer of galvannealed steel sheet

Mechanical properties of galvannealed (GA) steel sheet used for automotive exposed panel and predicted failure phenomenon of its coating layer were evaluated using finite element method. V-bending test was performed to understand better the fracture of coating layer of GA steel sheet during plastic deformation. Yield strength of the coating layer was calculated by using a relative difference between hardness of coating layer measured from the nano-indentation test and that of substrate. To measure shearing strength at the interface between substrate and coating layer, shearing test with two specimens attached by an adhesive was carried out. Using the mechanical properties measured, a series of finite element analyses coupled with a failure model was performed. Results reveal that the fracture of coating layer occurs in an irregular manner at the region where compressive deformation is dominant. Meanwhile, a series of vertical cracks perpendicular to material surface are observed at the tensile stressed-region. It is found that 0.26-0.28 of local equivalent plastic strain exists at the coating and substrate at the beginning of failure. The fracture of coating layer depends on ductility of the coating layer considerably as well.     

锌层对电镀纯锌钢板成形性能的影响研究

分析电镀锌钢板的成形特性,包括镀层对力学性能和成形极限的影响,镀层损伤行为以及摩擦系数和润滑剂粘度的关系等。结果表明,电镀纯锌层对钢板的力学性能和成形极限影响很小。随着运动粘度的增加,电镀锌钢板的摩擦系数逐渐降低。与合金化镀层相比,电镀纯锌镀层更易随基板变形,因此表面裂纹出现较晚且数量较少。     

Fretting wear of HVOF Ni-Cr based alloy deposited on SAE 1045 steel

The present study has been carried out in order to investigate the fretting wear performance of a Ni-Cr based alloy, containing B and C, deposited onto a SAE 1045 steel substrate by HVOF thermal spray. Tests were conducted on both the uncoated and coated substrate, under unlubricated dry conditions, at different applied normal loads, cycles and amplitudes in order to analyze the influence of these parameters on the wear behavior. It has been determined that the coated substrate exhibits a very good tribological performance in comparison to the uncoated substrate. The decrease of the wear volume of the coated substrate is of ~ 95-97% of that determined for the uncoated substrate. The increase in the fretting wear resistance provided by the coating has been attributed to the presence of a large amount of dispersed Ni and Cr carbide and/or borides in the Ni-Co matrix. Examination of the fretted surfaces by SEM indicates that the uncoated substrate undergoes an abrasive wear mechanism. On the contrary, it has been observed that the wear mechanism of the coating-substrate system depends on the magnitude of the applied load. At loads of 30 N, a polishing wear mechanism has been determined, whereas between 40 and 50 N, the initiation and propagation of micro-cracks takes place through the coating. The numerical integration of the wear scar depth profile curves employed in the present work allows an estimation of the wear volume which is in good agreement with that determined experimentally by means of 3D profilometry. It has been determined that, at a constant wear amplitude the wear volume increases with the applied normal load and that at under constant load conditions, the wear volume decreases as the wear test amplitude also decreases, becoming insignificant when it is less than ~ 100 µm.     

Study on static and fatigue strength of structural adhesive-bonded joints of steel sheets for automotive application

The static and fatigue strength of crush durable structural adhesive-bonded lap joints of steel sheets for automobiles was evaluated by tensile shear tests. The steel sheets used in this study were uncoated and galvannealed (GA) with tensile strength ranging from 270 MPa-grade to 980 MPa-grade and the thickness ranging from 0.7 to 1.8 mm. Also, the effects of the adhesive types were evaluated. The results are as follows: In the static tensile shear tests, when the steel sheets deformed during the tensile test, the tensile shear strength increased with the increase in the base metal properties, such as the yield strength and thickness; however, when the base metal properties were sufficiently high not to undergo plastic deformation, the tensile shear strength exhibited a constant value. On the other hand, the effect of base metal properties on the fatigue joint strength was relatively small. The static joint strength of the GA steel joints was slightly lower than that of the uncoated steel sheets; however, the fatigue strength of the GA steel joints was higher than that of the uncoated steel sheets. The coating failure of the GA was affected by the type of adhesive, base metal properties and type of test. Choosing the proper adhesive can reduce the failure of the GA coating, and the high strength steel showed fewer coating failures than the mild steel.     

Surface modified long-life electrode for resistance spot welding of Zn-coated steel

In order to increase the life of conventional copper electrodes in resistance spot welding of Zn-coated sheet steel, a multi-layer Ni/(TiC_P/Ni)/Ni composite coating was deposited onto the copper electrode top surface by electro-spark deposition. Scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray analysis, X-ray diffraction and micro-hardness tests were employed to characterize the microstructure and property of the coating. The results showed that the copper electrodes with a dense Ni/(TiC_P/Ni)/Ni coating slightly increased the resistance of the weld system and hence the welding current could be reduced to produce a weld with the same button size as that made by uncoated electrodes at a high welding current. The coating was gradually cracked during welding under the action of welding force, forming Ni/(TiC_P/Ni)/Ni composite islands which were strongly adherent to and further, punched into copper substrate. The coating could significantly reduce the alloying between copper electrode substrate and molten Zn. As a result, coated electrode showed a much longer life than an uncoated electrode even though the welding current for coated electrode was lower than that for uncoated one.     

变形温度对核电用锆包壳管表面Cr涂层开裂行为的影响

Cr涂层能够有效提高核电反应堆锆包壳管的事故容错能力，但在高温下其内部可能会萌生裂纹导致涂层开裂失效，现有Cr涂层开裂行为研究多针对常温，因此研究不同温度下Cr涂层的开裂行为对于其应用具有重要的理论和工程价值。采用多弧离子镀技术在N36锆合金包壳管外表面制备厚度为14μm左右的Cr涂层，采用WDW-100C万能试验机对涂层管分别进行室温（25℃）与高温（100、200、300、400℃）拉伸试验，并通过超景深显微镜和扫描电镜（SEM）观察涂层的裂纹表面与截面形貌，对Cr涂层在不同温度下的开裂行为与开裂机理进行研究。结果表明，随着温度升高，涂层管的屈服强度从（400±5）MPa下降到（150±5）MPa，涂层管的总体塑性变化不大；室温下裂纹萌生于涂层内部，其开裂方式为脆性沿晶断裂；100℃时涂层开裂方式不变，但表面裂纹数量减少，裂纹尖端出现钝化，由V字形转变为U字形；随着温度进一步升高，涂层的塑性变形能力提高，其表面呈流线形塑性变形；200℃及以上温度下，涂层表面无明显开裂，仅出现少量微裂纹，塑性的升高导致拉伸过程中涂层的变形量与基体存在差异，裂纹开始萌生于界面处，其断裂方式也由脆性断裂...     

Interface fracture behavior of electroplated coating on metal substrate under compressive strain

The inducement of interface fracture is crucial to the analysis of interfacial adhesion between coating and substrate. For electroplated coating/metal substrate adhering materials with strong adhesion, interface cracking and coating spalling are difficult to be induced by conventional methods. In this paper an improved bending test named as T-bend test was conducted on a model coating system, i.e. electroplated chromium on a steel substrate. After the test, cross-sections of the coated materials were prepared to compare the failure behaviors under tensile strain and compressive strain induced by T-bend test. And the observation results show that coating cracking, interface cracking and partial spalling appear step by step. Based on experimental results, a new method may be proposed to rank the coated materials with strong interfacial adhesion.     

Failure mechanisms of a hydrogenated amorphous carbon coating in load-scanning tests

A diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating with a top layer of pure hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H) and an interlayer of tungsten-modified hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H:W) was deposited onto polished cylindrical specimens of a hardened and tempered cold work tool steel. On a load-scanning test rig, tribological–mechanical tests under dry conditions with DLC coated specimens sliding against identical, but uncoated specimens were performed. Additionally, comparative tests with DLC sliding against DLC and tool steel sliding against tool steel were carried out. During each test cycle, the normal load was gradually increased from 13 to 350 N, corresponding to a Hertzian contact pressure of 1.0 to 3.0 GPa. The coefficient of friction was monitored as a function of the normal load, with a significant increase in friction indicating failure of the coating. The tests were repeated and stopped at different total numbers of load cycles. After the tests, a FIB-assisted microscopical analysis in terms of wear and damage of the DLC coating was performed, revealing the (subsurface) failure mechanisms. For DLC sliding against steel, the coating fails within only few load cycles; first tribologically and after that mechanically. Failure is initiated by adherence and subsequent transfer of steel of the counter body. Below adhered steel flakes, tensile cracks form in the a-C:H top layer, with sharp crack edges removing even more steel from the counter body. In following load cycles, coating fragments are being pulled out at these spots, representing the final failure mode. In contrast, for DLC sliding against DLC, no coating failure and also no significant wear are observed, even after a considerably higher number of load cycles.     

TiB2-ZrB2涂层电极与TiB-ZrB2/Ni涂层电极失效对比分析

采用扫描电镜、能谱分析、X射线衍射仪以及显微硬度等表征手段,分析TiB2-ZrB2涂层与TiB2-ZrB2/Ni涂层电极点焊镀锌钢板时的失效过程.研究发现,无论是ZrB2-TiB2涂层还是ZrB2-TiB2/Ni涂层,在一定程度上均具有阻碍钢板镀层与点焊电极基体产生合金化反应的能力.ZrB2-TiB2、ZrB2-TiB2/Ni涂层电极失效过程存在些许不同,前者由于涂层与基体间结合力差,且涂层内塑性相相对较少,导致在点焊热和力的作用下,涂层逐渐脱落,点焊电极最终在合金化及塑性变形作用下发生失效.后者由于具有一定塑性,且涂层与基体结合力较好,点焊过程中涂层不会出现完全脱落现象.涂层作用一直持续至电极失效,电极失效形式主要表现为塑性变形.