On Construct Validity: Issues of Method and Measurement.

Fifty years ago, L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl (1955) advocated for the concept of construct validity, noting that psychologists study hypothetical, inferred entities and that validating measures of such entities involves basic theory testing. Three important developments in clinical assessment following that seminal article are noteworthy. First, clinical research has benefited from greater theoretical integration and subsequent differentiation among related constructs. Second, implementation of ongoing, critical evaluation of all aspects of the construct validity process, including theory development, hypothesis specification, research design, and empirical evaluation, has improved clinical assessment. Third, improvement in evaluating fit between hypotheses and observations has been sought. Improved means of evaluating multitrait, multimethod designs, and ways to increase their clinical representativeness, are one encouraging development. Ongoing efforts to improve the construct validity process reflect the legacy of L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving construct validity: Cronbach, Meehl, and Neurath's ship: Comment.

Smith's article "On Construct Validity: Issues of Method and Measurement" (see record 2005-16347-002) is a fine tribute to L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl (1955) that clarifies the current state and future directions in the understanding of construct validity. Construct validity is a dynamic process, and fit indices need to be used at the service of understanding, not in place of it. The failure of a study or set of studies to support a construct, a measure, or the theory underlying it admits of many explanations, and the ways scientists interpret such failures are prone to cognitive biases and motivated reasoning. This suggests why metrics designed to index the extent to which observations match expectations can be useful prostheses to scientific judgments. As P. E. Meehl (1954) showed decades ago, quantitative, statistical formulas and indices tend to outperform informal, qualitative judgments, and this applies as much to the way researchers evaluate constructs and measures as to judgments in the consulting room. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deconstructing, reconstructing, preserving Paul E. Meehl's legacy of construct validity.

The question of the status of cause-and-effect explanations of human behavior that posit physically existing causative factors and those that, on the other hand, posit hypothetical entities in the form of "useful fictions" has a long history. The influence of the works of Jeremy Bentham and Hans Vaihinger, as well as the later influence of Francis Galton, is described. Issues of the validity of hypothetical constructs and related problems of measurement and definition as found in psychoanalytic theory construction and in trait theory are examined. The significant and continuing interest generated by the landmark studies of K. MacCorquodale and P. E. Meehl (1948) and L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl (1955) as well as the central importance of P. E. Meehl's thinking are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paul E. Meehl (1920-2003).

Presents the obituary for Paul E. Meehl (1920-2003), one of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, who helped to shape psychology in a career that spanned more than 60 years. Dr. Meehl's intellectual contributions ranged over many areas, including clinical versus actuarial judgment, research on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, learning theory, psychoanalysis, and the genetic basis of schizophrenia. Dr. Meehl received considerable recognition for his contributions to academic and applied psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The stability and validity of early adolescents' reports of parenting constructs.

The stability and validity of early adolescents' reports of 6 parenting constructs were examined: parent–child conflict, positive family relations, parental monitoring, parents' rule making, consistent enforcement of rules, and use of positive reinforcement. Hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; H. W. Marsh & D. Hocevar, 1988) on questionnaire data from 3 quarterly assessments of 174 5th–7th grade youth was used to test a multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) model containing 6 parenting constructs as trait factors and 3 assessment occasions as method factors. Youths' reports of these parenting constructs were stable over time, and the CFA approach to MTMM data demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs. Each parenting construct was significantly correlated with youths' reports of deviant peer associations, antisocial behavior, and substance use, providing evidence of criterion validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing disharmony and disaffection in intimate relationships: Revision of the Marital Satisfaction Inventory factor scales.

Previous research has identified 2 broad components of distress in intimate relationships: overt conflict, or disharmony, and emotional distance, or disaffection. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the authors derived 2 broadband scales of disharmony and disaffection from the Marital Satisfaction Inventory-Revised (D. K. Snyder, 1997), building upon previous measures of these constructs (D. K. Snyder & Regts, 1982) derived from the original instrument. The new scales demonstrated high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, as well as discriminative validity and convergent validity with independent criteria of relationship functioning. Distinct distributions of these scales in community and clinical samples suggested their complementary role in research on intimate relationships and assessment of couples in treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do smokers know what we're talking about? The construct validity of nicotine dependence questionnaire measures.

Few studies have examined whether nicotine dependence self-report questionnaires can predict specific behaviors and symptoms at specific points in time. The present study used data from a randomized clinical trial (N = 608; M. E. Piper et al., 2007) to assess the construct validity of scales and items from 3 nicotine dependence measures: the Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence (T. F. Heatherton, L. T. Kozlowski, R. C. Frecker & K.-O. Fagerstr?m, 1991), the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale (S. Shiffman, A. J. Waters, & M. Hickcox, 2004), and the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives (M. E. Piper et al., 2004). Scales from these measures were used to predict participants' reports on real-time measures of withdrawal symptoms and smoking behavior and retrospective self-report questionnaires to assess convergent and discriminative validity. The nicotine dependence measures' scales and items generally predicted the real-time measures of similar constructs, but the percent of variance accounted for was low. The nicotine dependence measures did, however, show evidence of discriminative validity. Thus, this study provides modest support for the construct validity of these nicotine dependence scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a process-focused model of test score validity: Improving psychological assessment in science and practice.

Although definitions of validity have evolved considerably since L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl's classic (1955) review, contemporary validity research continues to emphasize correlational analyses assessing predictor–criterion relationships, with most outcome criteria being self-reports. The present article describes an alternative way of operationalizing validity—the process-focused (PF) model. The PF model conceptualizes validity as the degree to which respondents can be shown to engage in a predictable set of psychological processes during testing, with those processes dictated a priori by the nature of the instrument(s) used and the context in which testing takes place. In contrast to the traditional approach wherein correlational methods are used to quantify the relationship between test score and criterion, the PF model uses experimental methods to manipulate variables that moderate test score–criterion relationships, enabling researchers to draw more definitive conclusions regarding the impact of underlying psychological processes on test scores. By complementing outcome-based validity assessment with a process-driven approach, researchers will not only improve psychology's assessment procedures but also enhance their understanding of test bias and test score misuse by illuminating the intra- and interpersonal factors that lead to differential performance (and differential prediction) in different groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quantifying construct validity: Two simple measures.

Construct validity is one of the most central concepts in psychology. Researchers generally establish the construct validity of a measure by correlating it with a number of other measures and arguing from the pattern of correlations that the measure is associated with these variables in theoretically predictable ways. This article presents 2 simple metrics for quantifying construct validity that provide effect size estimates indicating the extent to which the observed pattern of correlations in a convergent-discriminant validity matrix matches the theoretically predicted pattern of correlations. Both measures, based on contrast analysis, provide simple estimates of validity that can be compared across studies, constructs, and measures meta-analytically, and can be implemented without the use of complex statistical procedures that may limit their accessibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role conflict and role ambiguity: A critical assessment of construct validity.

This article appraises the construct validity of role conflict and role ambiguity in organizational psychology research by tracing the process of validation from initial theory introduction to the present. Although the theoretical bases for the constructs were relatively well explicated, some conceptual shortcomings have carried over into empirical work. There are problems with the content validity of measures, a lack of convergent and discriminant evidence, and inattention to the full nomological network of hypothesized relationships. Recommendations for future role-conflict and role-ambiguity research are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Meehl revisited: A look at paradigms in psychology.

Comments on Meehl's (see record 1979-25042-001) article on the nature of psychological debates. The author is in agreement with Meehl that there is a need to reconsider how research is designed and carried out within psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reminiscences of early doctoral training programs in clinical psychology.

Although the origins of clinical psychology may be traced to the efforts of L. Witmer in the last century, contemporary clinical psychology, involving therapy as well as diagnostics, evolved in the years immediately following World War II. The 1st specialty programs leading to the PhD in clinical psychology were instrumental in shaping that evolution. This article describes the state of training before the specialty programs and how the specialty programs were developed. Their significance to licensing, accreditation standards, and other professional issues is explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling causal relations between academic and social competence and depression: a multitrait-multimethod longitudinal study of children

The authors obtained self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, and parent reports of depression and social and academic competence on 490 3rd graders and 455 6th graders near the beginning and end of the school year. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling revealed that (a) measures showed significant convergent and discriminant validity; (b) within-wave correlations between constructs were large and significant, although the depression-social competence correlation was larger than the depression-academic competence correlation; (c) the cross-wave stability of all constructs was remarkably high; and (d) social competence at Wave 1 predicted depression at Wave 2 for 6th graders after controlling for depression at Wave 1. Depression did not predict change in either academic or social competence over time. Implications for competence-based and failure-based models of child depression are discussed.     

Bias and obfuscation in Kendler's (2005) "clarification."

Comments on the article "Psychology and Phenomenology: A Clarification" by H. H. Kendler (see record 2005-05480-003). In this article, Kendler misrepresented contemporary existential-humanistic psychology and conventional (or natural) scientific psychology. With regard to the former, he presented a confused, unwittingly biased, and all-too-stereotypic picture. Aside from failing to cite virtually any contemporary existential-humanistic theorists (with the possible exceptions of Polkinghorne and Smith), he profoundly mischaracterized the phenomenological perspective on which existential-humanistic principles are based (e.g., see Cain & Seeman, 2002, Giorgi, 1970, and Schneider, Bugental, & Pierson, 2002, for an elaboration). To cite but a few problems to which Kendler (2005) fell victim, I consider first his characterization of phenomenological philosophy and psychology as "purely subjective" and "free of any scientific consideration or interpretation" (p. 318). With regard to Kendler's (2005, p. 322) characterization of conventional (or natural scientific) psychological inquiry as "objective" and amoral, there are several problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stamp collecting versus science: Validation as hypothesis testing.

Discusses the continuing arguments with respect to the unitarian vs trinitarian view of the validation process. It is argued that an emerging position is that the threefold distinction among validation models presented by L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl (see record 1956-03730-001) is not as useful as it once was. The present author suggests that the validation process be considered nothing more and nothing less than traditional hypothesis testing. It is further suggested that as a result of a tendency to label validity approaches as correct or incorrect in a given situation, Title VII cases often resemble a primitive form of stamp collecting, with the test in question as the metaphorical stamp. There are only 3 spaces to be filled—the content, construct, and criterion-related space. Depending on the type of test, the litigants set out if all the requirements have been met in a checklist fashion. The issue of the role of constructs in psychological measurement is considered, as is the general status of construct-validation strategies in employment testing. The unique knowledges, skills, and abilities that psychologists bring to the discussion of validity and inference are discussed. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychopathic, not psychopath: Taxometric evidence for the dimensional structure of psychopathy.

Although psychopathy is frequently regarded as qualitatively distinct from other conditions, relatively little research has examined whether psychopaths represent a distinct class of individuals. Using a sample of 876 prison inmates and court-ordered substance abuse patients who were administered the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (R. D. Hare, 2003), the authors examined the latent structure of psychopathy using several taxometric procedures developed by Meehl and colleagues (P. E. Meehl & L. J. Yonce, 1994; N. G. Waller & P. E. Meehl, 1998). The results across these procedures offer no compelling support for the contention that psychopathy is a taxonic construct and contradict previous reports that psychopathy is underpinned by a latent taxon. The authors discuss the theoretical, public policy, and practice-level implications of these findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some observations on a trend toward geriatrics in clinical psychology.

The history of clinical psychology moved from its origins in the 19th century with an emphasis on the mental examination of children, through projective techniques and psychotherapy, to clinical work with all stages of the life cycle. The aged have been the last group to be included as a separate source of clinical work. The employment situation in the profession and science of psychology is reviewed, with trends pointing to a clinical psychology of old age. Facilities that will be at the forefront of the demand are government-supported nursing homes and long-term-care hospitals. Few clinicians are trained properly for this work, but guidelines are offered that would ameliorate the situation. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Note on Mixed Group Validation.

Comments on the original article by R. M. Dawes and P. E. Meehl (see record 1966-11283-001) which considered mixed group validation. In the current article, a basic assumption of mixed group validation is questioned and a means of checking the validity of the assumption is suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Campbell’s and Rubin’s perspectives on causal inference.

Donald Campbell’s approach to causal inference (D. T. Campbell, 1957; W. R. Shadish, T. D. Cook, & D. T. Campbell, 2002) is widely used in psychology and education, whereas Donald Rubin’s causal model (P. W. Holland, 1986; D. B. Rubin, 1974, 2005) is widely used in economics, statistics, medicine, and public health. Campbell’s approach focuses on the identification of threats to validity and the inclusion of design features that may prevent those threats from occurring or render them implausible. Rubin’s approach focuses on the precise specification of both the possible outcomes for each participant and assumptions that are mathematically sufficient to estimate the causal effect. In this article, the authors compare the perspectives provided by the 2 approaches on randomized experiments, broken randomized experiments in which treatment nonadherence or attrition occurs, and observational studies in which participants are assigned to treatments on an unknown basis. The authors highlight dimensions on which the 2 approaches have different emphases, including the roles of constructs versus operations, threats to validity versus assumptions, methods of addressing threats to internal validity and violations of assumptions, direction versus magnitude of causal effects, role of measurement, and causal generalization. The authors conclude that investigators can benefit from drawing on the strengths of both approaches in designing research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

More theoretical risks.

Responds to the comments by F. Paniagua ("Kuhn's paradigmatic view of psychology and Skinner's theory of behavior." Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 11, 1991, 122-125) on the current author's original article, "Meehl revisited: A look at paradigms in psychology" (Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology 9, 1989, 30-36), in which the current author reviewed Paul Meehl's (see record 1979-25042-001) famous article "Theroetical risks and tabular asterisks: Sir Karl; Sir Ronald, and the slow progress of soft psychology." According to the current author, Paniagua takes exception to two casual remarks made in the current author's paper, one about Kuhn and the other about Skinner, but neither remark is related to the actual thesis. Paniagua's comments do not carry the substantive aspects of the article forward, which is unfortunate asserts the current author, because the theory discussed therein may prove useful in understanding the nature and evolution of psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)