The longitudinal structure of general and specific anxiety dimensions in children: Testing a latent trait–state–occasion model.

In an 8-wave, 4-year longitudinal study, 787 children (Grades 3–6) completed the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (C. R. Reynolds & B. O. Richmond, 1985), a measure of the Physiological Reactivity, Worry–Oversensitivity, and Social Alienation dimensions of anxiety. A latent variable (trait–state–occasion) model and a latent growth curve model were applied to each of the 3 anxiety dimensions and to a general anxiety factor consisting of the 3 dimensions. Although the general anxiety factor reflected a significant stable trait process, the Worry–Oversensitivity and Social Alienation dimensions reflected an autoregressive process more than a stable trait dimension. In contrast to the other 2 anxiety dimensions, Physiological Reactivity reflected a significant stable trait process, suggesting that the longitudinal structure of anxiety in children depends upon the dimension assessed. In children as early as age 9 or 10, Physiological Reactivity (more than other anxiety dimensions) manifested a stable trait component. Structural findings were consistent across gender and race; however, mean differences in gender and race emerged for general anxiety and its 3 dimensions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in early adolescents' beliefs in the legitimacy of parental authority.

Adolescents differ in the extent to which they believe that parents have legitimate authority to impose rules restricting adolescents' behavior. The purpose of the current study was to test predictors of individual differences in legitimacy beliefs during the middle school years. Annually, during the summers following Grades 5, 6, and 7, early adolescents (n = 218; 51% female, 47% African American, 73% in 2-parent homes) reported their beliefs regarding the legitimacy of parents' rules that restrict and monitor adolescents' free time activities. Cross-lagged analyses revealed that legitimacy beliefs were bidirectionally associated with independent decision making, psychological control, antisocial peer involvement, and resistance to control. Legitimacy beliefs declined more rapidly during the middle school years for boys than for girls and for adolescents who were older relative to their classmates. More independent decision making in Grades 5 and 6 predicted larger than expected declines in legitimacy beliefs in Grades 6 and 7. In sum, legitimacy beliefs weaken developmentally, and weaker legitimacy beliefs relative to same-grade peers are anteceded by premature autonomous experiences, psychological control, and adolescent attributes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are cognitive errors of underestimation predictive or reflective of depressive symptoms in children: a longitudinal study

Children in Grades 3-8 participated in a longitudinal study of the relation between negative self-evaluation errors and symptoms of depression. Children's self-perceived competence in 5 domains (academic, social, athletic, appearance, and conduct) was compared with teachers' and peers' perceptions. Children's tendency to underestimate their competencies predicted increases in depression scores in only 1 of 6 grade levels. Children's depression scores predicted increases in the underestimation of self-competence over time in all grade levels. Gender differences and developmental differences in the cognitive errors associated with depression scores also emerged. Contrary to A. T. Beck's (1963, 1972) model, negative self-distortions appear to be more reflective than predictive of depression in children.     

A longitudinal look at the relation between depression and anxiety in children and adolescents.

Elementary school students (n?=?330) and their parents (n?=?228) participated in a 3-year longitudinal study of the temporal relation between anxiety and depressive symptoms in children. Every 6 months, children and parents completed depression and anxiety questionnaires for a total of 6 waves. Structural equation modeling revealed that individual differences on all measures were remarkably stable over time. Nevertheless, high levels of anxiety symptoms at 1 point in time predicted high levels of depressive symptoms at subsequent points in time even after controlling for prior levels of depression symptoms. These findings were consistent across self- and parent reports. Results support the temporal hypothesis that anxiety leads to depression in children and adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort difference on the children's depression inventory: A meta-analysis.

A within-scale meta-analysis was performed on 310 samples of children (ages 8-16; N = 61,424) responding to the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Girls' depression scores stayed steady from ages 8 to 11 and then increased between ages 12 and 16. Boys' CDI scores were stable from ages 8 to 16 except for a high CDI score at age 12. Girls' scores were slightly lower than boys' during childhood, but girls scored higher beginning at age 13. There were no socioeconomic status effects and no differences between White and Black samples. However, Hispanic samples scored significantly higher on the CDI. Analyses for birth cohort showed a slight decrease in boys' CDI scores over time and no change for girls. Longitudinal studies demonstrated a marked testing effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anhedonia, positive and negative affect, and social functioning in schizophrenia

This study examines the relationship between anhedonia and the trait dimensions of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) in schizophrenia. The relationship between poor social functioning in schizophrenia and these individual differences in affectivity is also examined. Schizophrenia outpatients (n = 37) and normal controls (n = 15) were assessed at a baseline evaluation and again approximately 90 days later. Consistent with the hypothesized decrease in hedonic capacity in schizophrenia, patients reported significantly greater physical and social anhedonia and less PA than controls. However, the schizophrenia group also reported significantly greater NA and social anxiety than did controls. In support of the dispositional view of these individual differences in affectivity, trait measures demonstrated test-retest reliability, and group differences between the schizophrenia group and controls were stable over the 90-day followup period. Within the schizophrenia group, physical and social anhedonia were comparably negatively correlated with trait PA; however, social but not physical anhedonia was significantly positively correlated with NA and social anxiety. Poor social functioning in the schizophrenia group was associated with greater physical and social anhedonia and greater NA and social anxiety. Alternatively, greater trait PA was related to better social functioning. These findings indicate that schizophrenia is characterized by both low PA and elevated NA and that these affective characteristics are a stable feature of the illness. The results also suggest important links between affect and social functioning in schizophrenia.     

Social validity of support group and behavior therapy interventions for families of adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

Compared the social validity of behavior therapy vs. support group interventions for reduction of parent-adolescent conflict among families of adolescents with diabetes. Families were randomized to 10 sessions of an Education and Support group (ES) or 10 sessions of Behavioral Family Systems Therapy (BFST). We compared participants' social validity ratings of BFST and ES using the Treatment Evaluation Questionnaire (TEQ). Mean TEQ scores were significantly more positive for BFST than ES and, for 13 of 20 items, BFST was rated significantly more positively by parents and/or adolescents. Adolescents rated ES less positively than did parents. Fathers' responses reflected fewer differences between ES and BFST. Results extend previous research on BFST and confirm its superiority over ES for targeting family conflict.     

Observed reductions in school bullying, nonbullying aggression, and destructive bystander behavior: A longitudinal evaluation.

This study was a longitudinal extension of a random control trial of the Steps to Respect antibullying program. Students in Grades 3–5 were surveyed (n = 624) and observed on the playground (n = 360). Growth curve models of intervention students showed 2-year declines in playground bullying, victimization, nonbullying aggression, destructive bystander, and argumentative behavior. Grade-equivalent contrasts indicated group differences in all problem behaviors. Problem behaviors in the control group increased or remained stable across grade. Intervention group students reported less difficulty responding assertively to bullying compared with control students. Within both groups, older students perceived themselves to be more aggressive and less frequently victimized than younger students. Methodological issues posed by inconsistencies between self-reported and observed behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The validity of the DSM-III posttraumatic stress disorder classification as applied to children.

Tested three groups of children: The first group (n?=?231) presented with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the second group (n?=?32) presented with simple phobia (i.e., test phobia), and the third group (n?=?35) was made up of nonclinical controls. The subjects marked the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS), Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) and their conduct was rated against the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS) criteria. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) evinced significant group and gender differences. No significant interaction effects were noted. Univariate F tests and Bonferroni posttests revealed that the PTSD cases evinced markedly higher RCMAS, CDI, and CTRS scores than their phobic and nonphobic peers. Analogously, the RCMAS and CDI scores of the phobia cases were appreciably greater than the control groups. On the other hand, the CTRS scores of the test phobia and control groups were not significantly different. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A microgonotropen pentaaza pentabutylamine and its interactions with DNA

The susceptibility of self-report and thematic measures of depression to the effects of a defensive test-taking approach was assessed among 44 child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients. It was hypothesized that scores on a measure of defensiveness would be associated with self-reported but not thematic measures of depression, and furthermore, that this finding would be more pronounced for girls than boys. Patients completed the Lie Scale of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS), the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI), and the Roberts Apperception Test for Children. As predicted, RCMAS-Lie scores were significantly associated with CDI but not Roberts Depression scores, and this effect was more pronounced among females, primarily due to the high CDI scores of nondefensive girls. Implications of results for psychological assessment of children and adolescents are discussed.     

Correspondences among parent, teacher, and student perceptions of adolescents' learning disabilities

A group of 26 adolescents with learning disabilities (Grades 9 through 12), their parents, and their special education teachers were asked to rate the students' skills in each of 21 specific areas covering general ability, oral language, reading, written language, math, study skills, motivation, social skills, attention, and nonverbal skills. Correspondences in the absolute and relative ratings of parents, teachers, and students across the 21 skill areas were examined. The parents' ratings were consistent with those of the teachers in 16 areas and significantly lower than the teachers in 5 areas. The students' ratings were generally higher than those of their parents and teachers. The student-teacher differences were significant in 6 areas, whereas the student-parent differences were significant in 11 areas. Although generally lower in absolute terms than the ratings of their children, the parents' relative ratings were strikingly parallel to their children's ratings across skill areas (r = 80). Differences in the reference groups used for the ratings did not seem to account for the discrepant ratings. Possible implications of the differing perceptions of students' learning disabilities for students' self-esteem and academic progress are discussed.     

Factor structure of self-reported depression: Clinic-referred children versus adolescents.

The literature on childhood depression has often treated children and adolescents as a homogeneous group. However, research on cognitive and affective development suggests that the nature of depression may be different for these two age groups. We explored this possibility, separately factor analyzing Children's Depression Inventory responses for 110 clinic-referred children (aged 8–11 years) and 139 adolescents (aged 12–26 years). Although both groups produced three-factor solutions, a number of developmental differences were noted. All of the adolescent factors were correlated with parent prceptions of externalizing behavior, but none of the child factors were. Furthermore, gender differences on the factors were found for the adolescents only. An inspection of communality estimates indicated that whereas all of the CDI items were relatively involved in depression for the adolescents, only 20 of 26 items were involved for the children. Theoretical interpretation of the results was deferred pending replication of the factor structure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in the emergence of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: A longitudinal investigation of parent and child reports.

The authors address questions about the rate that depressive symptoms emerge, developmental and gender differences in this rate, and differences between parent and child estimates of this rate. In a 12-wave, cohort-sequential, longitudinal design, 1,570 children (Grades 4-11) and parents completed reports about children's depression. Cross-domain latent growth curve analysis revealed that (a) the rate of symptom growth varied with developmental level, (b) gender differences symptom growth preceded emergence of mean level gender differences, (c) the rate of symptom development varied with age, and (d) parent-child agreement about rate of symptom change was stronger than agreement about time-specific symptoms. The authors suggest that predictability of depressive symptoms varies with age and the dimension under investigation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factor analysis of the Children's Depression Inventory in a community sample.

The factor structure of the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI; M. Kovacs, 1992) was evaluated in a large community sample of 1,777 children and 924 adolescents. There were 5 first-order factors (Externalizing, Dysphoria, Self-Deprecation, School Problems, and Social Problems) for the child group; the adolescent group yielded the same 5 factors plus a 6th factor (Biological Dysregulation). Confirmatory factor analyses supported the stability and replicability of the obtained factor structures. Both samples yielded 2 higher order factors—Internalizing and Externalizing. The factors were compared with previous CDI factors identified for clinical (B. Weiss et al., 1991) and community (M. Kovacs, 1992) samples. Other notable findings included more boys reporting high scores (17 and above) on the CDI among the child sample, whereas, among adolescents more girls reported high scores (17 and above) on the total CDI as well as higher scores on the biological dysregulation factor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Four-year predictive value of the Children's Depression Inventory.

Predictive value for the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) was demonstrated through a 4-year follow-up study of 105 children who entered a private residential school for children who had lost one or both natural parents through death, divorce, or separation. At baseline, depressed and nondepressed groups were defined with the CDI. They were then reevaluated at the end of 1, 2, and 4 yrs. On the CDI, the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, and the Internalizing scale of the Child Behavior Checklist, the original depressed group who remained at school all 4 years showed scores that were significantly higher than those of the nondepressed group after 1 and 2 years, and were also greater after the 4th year. They further showed significantly poorer academic performance, received significantly more counseling, and more often separated from the school under negative circumstances. The most pathological scores overall were demonstrated by the children in the original depressed group who separated from the school during the 4 years under negative circumstances. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Orderly change in a stable world: The antisocial trait as a chimera.

Children's traits, such as antisocial behavior, are embedded in a matrix that is changing over time. Although the trait score is stable, there are changes in the form of antisocial acts. There can also be subgroups of boys who show systematic increases in mean level of antisocial behavior. Latent growth models were used to demonstrate both changes in form and systematic changes in mean level for a subgroup of boys. The analyses included measures of covariates that were thought necessary to cause these changes. There are also qualitative changes brought about by the presence of the antisocial trait itself (e.g., academic failure, peer rejection, and depressed mood). Factor analyses carried out at Grades 4, 6, and 8 showed that, over time, both the changes in form and the addition of new problems are quantifiable and thus represent orderly change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective relations between growth in drinking and familial stressors across adolescence.

Although there is much empirical support for the relation between stress and alcohol consumption in adolescence, it is unclear whether exposure to stressors is associated with overall trajectories or temporary elevations in drinking. Moreover, little research has explored whether the stress–alcohol use association in adolescence may be explained by shared risk factors that produce both individual differences in stress exposure and elevated risk for alcohol use. The present study tested these hypotheses within the context of a state-trait model of family stressors in a prospectively studied sample of children at high risk for alcoholism: children of alcoholic parents and matched controls (n = 451). Levels and growth in alcohol use were modeled longitudinally from ages 13 to 17. Results indicated that shared risk factors accounted for 53% of the impact of trait family stressors on growth in adolescent drinking, but time-specific exposure to familial stressors still predicted short-term boosts in alcohol use in adolescence. These findings imply that trait familial stressors mark adolescents at risk for alcohol use and also impact adolescent alcohol use within a short time frame (i.e., over 1 year vs. over many years) when they occur above and beyond the adolescent’s “usual load” of stressors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood depression, stressors and parental depression

The relationship between depression and stressors and the relationship between depression in children and depression in their parents were investigated. Depressed children aged 7-11 years (n = 20) were compared with clinical non-depressed children (n = 88) and normal children (n = 55). Children, mothers and fathers in the three groups were tested. Measures included the Children's Depression Inventory, Recent Life Events Scale, Stressor Scale and Beck Depression Inventory. The findings showed that children and mothers in the depressed group reported more stressors than other children and other mothers while fathers of children in the depressed group did not report more stressors. The findings also showed that mothers of depressed children were more depressed than mothers of normal children while there were no differences between the scores of fathers in the three groups.     

A multimethod examination of the stability of depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence.

In an 8-wave, 2-cohort longitudinal study, children and adolescents were followed from the fall of 5th grade to the spring of 8th grade. Participants (N = 1,269), their parents, and peers completed reports of depressive symptoms at 6-month intervals. The use of a 2-group latent variable autoregressive model to examine the stability of depressive symptomatology revealed several trends. First, the 6-month stability of depressive symptoms was high for boys and girls. Second, the stability of depressive symptomatology was lower between the spring of 6th grade and the fall of 7th grade than during any other point in the study. Finally, the stability of depressive symptoms did not differ with respect to gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in responsiveness to babies among mature adults.

Interest in babies, a feminine sex-typed behavior, was assessed in 30 parents of adolescents, 28 parents whose grown children were no longer living at home, and 26 grandparents of an infant. Measures included responsivity to an unfamiliar baby in a waiting room situation, interest in pictures of babies, and the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Contrasting expectations of the course of male vs female reactions to babies are suggested by trait theory, sociobiology, and a functional-based role theory of sex differences. Across a variety of indices, grandparents demonstrated more interest in babies than did the other parent groups. Grandmothers were more sensitive to the baby's elicitations than grandfathers. The stage-of-life findings and sex differences support a functional-based role theory, that is, sex differences serve a function at the time they are manifested. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)