Working with dreams in psychotherapy: What do psychoanalytic therapists report that they do?

Forty-seven psychoanalytic therapists completed a questionnaire about dream work. Overall, results indicated that therapists had very positive attitudes toward dreams, worked with their own dreams, sought out dream training, and felt competent working with dreams. Therapists estimated that they worked with dreams with about half of their clients about half of the time in psychotherapy. They were most willing to work with dreams when clients had recurrent or troubling dreams or nightmares, were psychologically minded, were seeking growth, were interested in dreams, and were willing to work with dreams. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult development and psychotherapy: Bridging the gap between theory and practice.

Views adult development, as posed by C. Jung (1933) and E. Erikson (1950, 1968), as precursors to D. Levinson and colleagues' (1978) notion of life structure (LS). The present authors apply psychosocial adult development theory to psychotherapy practice and report a way of working with dreams to facilitate LS work in psychotherapy. Levinson and colleagues postulate that adult development is a process of (1) building an adult LS; (2) cyclically solidifying it; and (3) through transition periods, changing the existing LS. For some, the first adult LS may be heavily influenced and then modified on the basis of guiding image or dream. Parts of the dream may be conscious and/or unconscious. It is during the novice phase of adulthood (ages 17–33 yrs) in the early adulthood era of the life cycle that this crucial work of identifying and working with the dream to form and reform the first adult LS takes place. Two examples illustrate the use of dreams in LS work during early adult transition and age 30 transition. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assimilation in therapy involving interpretation of recurrent and nonrecurrent dreams.

We studied the process and outcome of one case of successful, brief (20 sessions), dream interpretation-focused psychotherapy with a dissociative client. During the therapy, a recurrent dream and 3 nonrecurrent dreams were explored using Hill's (1996) cognitive-experimental dream interpretation model. To explore the process of therapy, the Assimilation of Problematic Experiences Scale (APES; Stiles, Meshot, Anderson, & Sloan, 1992) was used to track changes across treatment in the client's level of assimilation of the core theme of her recurrent dream. This analysis revealed that level of assimilation increased over treatment, with most changes in assimilation occurring during sessions involving the interpretation of the recurrent dream. Use of the Hill model of dream interpretation with recurrent dreams and with dissociative clients is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dream interpretation can change beliefs about the past.

Forty-six nonclinical subjects reported on their childhood experiences on two occasions, separated by 3–4 weeks. between these sessions, some subjects were exposed to a 30-min therapy simulation in which their dream material was analyzed by a clinical psychologist. He suggested to subjects that their dreams were indicative of having experienced, before the age of three, certain critical experiences (e.g., being lost in a public place or feeling abandoned by parents). Subjects previously reported that these critical events had not occurred. The brief therapy simulation led them to dramatic shifts in belief that the experiences had occurred. These results show that brief therapy-like interactions can change people's beliefs about the past, and have implications for the power of clinical intervention. Dream interpretation, commonly practiced in psychotherapy to guide patient's understanding of themselves, may have unexpected side effects if it leads to beliefs about the past that may in fact be false. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy and Alcoholics Anonymous: An integrated approach.

This article provides a rationale for, and a method of, combining a nonprofessional self-help addiction recovery program, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), and a professional treatment approach, psychotherapy. The two approaches share a common goal, target similar issues, and work toward similar outcomes. A psychotherapy approach that integrates the two approaches can be quite powerful. Treating a patient in psychotherapy who is also working in the AA program without a good understanding of AA can result in the two approaches working at cross-purposes, diminishing the effectiveness of both interventions. After a brief discussion of psychotherapy integration, the AA program is examined in detail, focusing on the philosophy and change strategies that are compatible with psychodynamic and cognitive–behavioral models of psychotherapy. A method for integrating these techniques into a psychotherapy directed at treating addiction is presented. Guidelines are provided to manage the implementation of this integrated approach throughout the process of recovery. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dreams in group therapy: a review of models

Dream work in therapeutic environments is reviewed, exploring the benefits and limitations of dreams. The application of dreams to groups and the impact of the work on group process and interaction is discussed. The integration of dream-work models within various group psychotherapeutic approaches is examined. A meta-classification of dream-work concludes the review.     

What Freudians can learn from Jung.

Noting that there has been an increasing sharing of ideas between psychoanalysts and analytical psychologists within the past decade, the authors, all Jungian analysts, survey Jung's clinical theory in an effort to identify areas where psychoanalytic clinicians might find Jung's concepts helpful. They discuss Jung's approach to the dream, his understanding of psychotherapy as a dialectical procedure, and the theory of complexes and archetypes. They also review how Jung's notions of the Self and individuation are used in contemporary Jungian practice. A dream of a man in his mid-30s is presented to illustrate how these formulations can facilitate understanding of the patient and the analytic process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recalled dream content and the maintenance of body image.

Focused on the amount of physical activity in the recalled dreams of 27 paralyzed and 29 normal men. 1 hypothesis, derived from Rorschach's work, was that dreams are kinesthetic phenomena which continuously function to maintain body image. A 2nd, alternative hypothesis was that dreams serve an emergency repair function, buttressing body image only when the latter is in flux. While no general upsurge of kinesthetic dream content was found in the paralyzed-S group, recently paralyzed men were found to have more, and long-term paralyzed men less, kinesthetic dream content than did normal men. Results support the emergency repair theory of dream function. The necessity for a 2-factor theory of dream function is considered. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The writing and interpretation of dreams.

Freud's (1900/1953a) magnum opus, "The Interpretation of Dreams," largely based on the self-analysis of his own dreams, incorporated a wide variety of source material. Concerned about exposure and discretion, he nevertheless published his dreams with many personal associations and revelations. Despite the self-analytic, research, and educational value of his written dreams, Freud paradoxically devalued written dreams in clinical psychoanalysis. Written dreams can be preserved, collected, compared, and reexamined. Writing dreams protects against forgetting the dream with its unconscious representations. Written dreams of patients are not simply resistance or enactments, but analytic communications with transference–countertransference significance. A clinical vignette exemplifies use of the written dream in attempted ego mastery of unconscious trauma and conflict. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How early adolescents describe their dreams: a quantitative analysis

Most empirical research on dreams has focused on content and structure, while linguistic features have received far less attention. The present study investigated dream language in a critical developmental stage: early adolescence. Narratives of the dreams of 145 early adolescents were tape-recorded and transcribed, and the frequencies of various grammar forms and common words were calculated. The most common nouns for the entire sample were house and mother. The most frequent verbs were go and do. Males' dream narratives contained a greater number of such words as animal, long, enter, and kill. Females more often used intransitive verbs and such words as teacher, horse, and put. Several features differentiated older from younger early adolescents' dreams. The results indicate that linguistic features of dream narratives are affected by age and sex, displaying interesting parallels with clinical theories on dreams and early adolescence.     

Nightmare after trauma as paradigm for all dreams: a new approach to the nature and functions of dreaming

Nightmares, far from being unsuccessful dreams or exceptions to rules about dreams, can be considered paradigms for all dreaming. They allow us to follow exactly how a disturbance or perturbation is handled by the processing systems in our minds. The data considered here consists of dream series in the weeks and months immediately following trauma in adults--in other words, nightmares and dreams occurring as the trauma resolves. It appears the traumatized person may dream first about the actual trauma (though not always), then, very quickly, the dreams appear to deal with the dominant emotion. Dreams of being overwhelmed by a tidal wave or being swept up by a whirlwind are common after almost any trauma. Clearly, such dreams are not about the sensory input from the actual trauma. Rather, the dreams are about the dominant emotion. The dreams contextualize (find a picture context for) the emotional concern. After trauma, the dominant emotion is usually first terror and fear, then often followed by guilt (such as survivor guilt). This too is pictured in the dream series. The same pattern of contextualizing an emotional concern can be seen in stressful situations, in pregnancy, or in patients whose lives are dominated by one emotion. This pattern is paradigmatic for all dreams, but it may be difficult to detect in "ordinary" dreams, because there may be a number of other relatively smaller emotional concerns present, as opposed to the one clear-cut dominant one (as after trauma). A theory of dreaming is sketched out based on these data which suggests that overall dreaming makes connections more broadly than waking in the nets of the mind, and that the connections are not made randomly but guided by the dreamer's emotional concerns. It is also suggested that the making of connections may be functional for the organism in the sense of "weaving in," or integrating, new material.     

A methodological study of the effect of experimentally induced demand characteristics in research on nocturnal dreams.

Tested the hypothesis that demand characteristics may influence dream content. Laboratory and home dreams were collected from 12 undergraduates allocated to 2 matched groups. The independent variable, a simple form, was administered to each group and requested that the Ss in the respective groups pay special attention to either the outdoor-nature or urban settings of their nocturnal dreams. The Ss did not consciously construe these forms as representing an attempt to influence their dreams. Nevertheless, in the treatment condition, the dream settings of both groups changed significantly in the predicted direction, as assessed by 2 quantitative indices. Implications of the findings are discussed with reference to laboratory dream research. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Dreams and the growth of personality.

Reviews the book, Dreams and the growth of personality, 2nd ed by Ernest Lawrence Rossi. Rossi presents a step-by-step, concise procedure for using dream material as a way of changing how we look at and define ourselves; and thus of helping patients find new understanding of themselves, new ways of behaving, new aspects of personality. The setting for change is the psychotherapeutic environment. His book is an attempt to balance "laboratory research on biology of sleep and dreams, the place of dreams in the psychology of the individual" and what he calls "the significance of dreams as harbingers of broad developments in the evolution of consciousness and culture." A comprehensive review of current psychophysiological theories and research on dreaming comprises the last section of this highly useful book. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Countertransference in the treatment of pathological narcissism.

Explores literature on countertransference reactions experienced in psychodynamic work with narcissistic clients, examines the various therapist–client variables involved in these reactions, and briefly suggests approaches to understanding and resolving them. Common types of narcissistic transference and countertransference include responses to the mirroring transference, idealizing transference, twinship transference, and negative transference. Underlying principles in understanding and effectively utilizing one's countertransference feelings in psychotherapy include differentiating subjective vs objective countertransference and determining whether to interpret these feelings with regard to both the client's developmental needs and phase of treatment. This is especially important in treating narcissistic clients whose self-esteem is fragile and who are, thus, prone to experience shame and rage reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Decision making and psychotherapy integration: Theoretical considerations, preliminary data, and implications for future research.

In recent years, a number of publications have called for investigation of how psychotherapists make treatment decisions in clinical practice. This recommendation is particularly salient for psychotherapy integration, as studies have consistently shown that a plurality of American clinicians consider themselves to be either "eclectic" or "integrative" in theoretical orientation. Yet, the research on clinician decision making in psychotherapy is in its infancy. This article examines the need for decision-making research in psychotherapy integration, as well as aspects of psychotherapy integration that are targets for research and possible theoretical frameworks for understanding decision-making processes of integrative psychotherapists. A preliminary study provides data from practicing psychotherapists to illustrate these points. Finally, implications and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Forms of Intersubjectivity in Infant Research and Adult Attachment.

Reviews the book, Forms of Intersubjectivity in Infant Research and Adult Attachment by Beatrice Beebe, Steven Knoblauch, Judith Rustin, and Dorienne Sorter (2005). In this book, the authors use their 10 years of collaborative work to produce an in-depth and well-constructed discussion of verbal and nonverbal forms of intersubjectivity as observed in the treatment setting and as evidenced by data generated from more mainstream child development studies. They move beyond the lack of integration between these related though often dramatically disconnected disciplines and build on infant researchers' understanding of "prereflective" caregiver-child interactions to offer a new theory of intersubjectivity that enhances our understanding of the clinical interaction with adult patients. This book is not for those therapists who are interested in learning well-specified, new interventions to use in their psychotherapy practice. It is also not suggested for those clinicians who do not have some background in psychoanalytic theory and practice. It is, however, recommended for those clinicians who work psychodynamically and are interested in developing their awareness of the nonverbal aspects of treatment and the co-construction of the therapeutic encounter. This book would also be useful to those in the field of psychotherapy research as it poses new questions about the nature of the therapeutic process and suggests the importance of examining the role that implicit, nonverbal interactions play in psychotherapy. Beebe, Knoblauch, Rustin, and Sorter's book is well constructed, persuasively argued, and highly recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dreams in the elderly: contents and clinical usefulness

This article reviews the literature on the dreams of persons beyond 50 years of age. A reduced dream recall rate, if at all, does not appear to be the result of weakened memory capacities at that age, but may rather be due to a lower rate of current concerns. In a similar way, the changes in contents are not a function of aging per se, but have taken place already between the 20th and 45th year of age. The dreams of the dying can, because of the unusualness of the situation experienced by this group, be of a very particular nature and quality. At any age of life, the dream can become instrumental in healing processes. Dreams seem to be of vital importance in supportive psychotherapy after bereavement and, of course, during the process of dying.     

Effects of training in dream recall and dream interpretation skills on dream recall, attitudes, and dream interpretation outcome.

Forty-two volunteer clients with below-average dream recall and attitudes toward dreams participated in training sessions focusing on either improving dream recall and attitudes toward dreams, building dream interpretation skills, or educating about counseling. After training, individual dream interpretation sessions were conducted. No significant differences were found among the 3 conditions in regard to dream recall, attitudes toward dreams, or client- or therapist-reported session outcome, but effect sizes suggested that participants in the skills condition gained more from sessions than did participants in the dream recall–attitudes condition. Session outcome for all volunteer clients was equivalent to those in previous studies of volunteer clients with no training, suggesting that training was not necessary and that these participants were able to benefit from single-session dream interpretation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of beliefs about the origins and controllability of dreams.

In three studies the authors investigated the development of beliefs about dreaming. Study 1 assessed 3 to 5-year-old children's beliefs about the origins and controllability of dreams. Results revealed significant changes in children's beliefs about the roles of behavioral experiences and mental processes in the generation of dream content. Results also revealed that young children consider both dreams and imagination to be highly controllable. In Study 2, preschool-age children, elementary school-age children, and adults received either imagination or dream stories and were questioned about controllability. In Study 3, emotional valence of the dream content was varied. Results of Studies 2 and 3 revealed significant development in beliefs that dreams are not subject to conscious control. Beliefs in controllability were higher among females. Study 3 showed that the emotional content of a dream affects these claims. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dream interpretation sessions: Who volunteers, who benefits, and what volunteer clients view as most and least helpful.

Undergraduate students (N ?=?336) completed measures of personality, cognitive functioning, and attitudes toward dreams; reported average hours of sleep and estimated dream recall; and kept a 2-week dream diary. A subset of 109 students volunteered to participate in and 65 students actually participated in, a dream interpretation session. The students who volunteered for dream interpretation had more positive attitudes toward dreams, recalled dreams more frequently, were more open and higher in absorption (capacity for restructuring one's phenomenal field), and were more often female than nonvolunteers. The volunteer clients who gained the most from dream interpretation reported fewer dreams in a 2-week dream diary. Clients reported that the most helpful aspects of dream interpretation were insight, links to waking life, and receiving another person's input. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)