Challenges in using waterjet machining of NiTi shape memory alloys: An analysis of controlled-depth milling

The nickel-titanium shape memory alloys (NiTi SMAs) have a very high potential for a wide variety of applications thanks to their unique mechanical properties: shape memory effect and pseudoelasticity. However, they have been proved to be more challenging to cut than other advanced engineering materials because of their high ductility, crystal-oriented and stress-oriented mechanical properties. In stark contrast to the extensive work on the metallurgical/microstructural properties of the SMA, there is limited research regarding non-conventional machining of this group of special alloys.Waterjet technology is well-known for cutting advanced difficult-to-cut materials owing to its benefits of reduced mechanical and thermal damages to workpiece surfaces. This paper reports for the first time the use of waterjet technology to mill the functional shape memory alloys and thus to open new avenues for the utilisation of these alloys for advanced engineering applications (e.g. aerospace, medical fields). However, when it comes to NiTi SMAs (characterised by low temperature phase martensite and parent phase austenite), the insignificant waterjet temperatures become critical to the material behaviour as their crystal structures are sensitive to the variations in both temperature and mechanical compression. This makes the processing (particularly waterjet controlled-depth milling) a real challenging task.By taking into consideration both of the waterjet temperatures at different material removal conditions (i.e. with and without abrasives in the focussing tube) and the transformation temperatures of NiTi, three different working zones (100% martensite; mix of austenite and martensite; 100% austenite) under waterjet process have been proposed. In addition, a combined phase and stress-strain diagram for shape memory effect in martensitic phase and pseudoelasticity in austenite phase of NiTi has been suggested. In this paper, Ni_49.8Ti_50.2 shape memory alloy was considered in which its transition temperature range is overlapped with the waterjet operating temperature; two approaches of waterjet processes (plain and abrasive waterjet milling) were proposed so as to investigate the mechanical and metallurgical effect provoked by the relationship between operating temperatures and transformation temperatures. It was found that abrasive waterjetting is more viable than plain waterjetting for controlled-depth milling of NiTi shape memory alloys.     

添加Cr对Ti-Ni形状记忆合金相变和低温形变特性的影响

用示差扫描量热仪和拉伸试验研究了添加Cr对形变退火态Ti-Ni形状记忆合金相变和低温形变特性的影响。结果表明,添加微量Cr后,Ti-Ni合金的R、马氏体(M)相变温度θR和θM大幅度降低,M相变热滞?θM增加,应力-应变曲线的平台应力σM显著提高,超弹性(SE)改善,塑性变差。添加微量Cr后,Ti-Ni合金的低温SE特性大幅改善。室温下,Ti-50.8Ni合金呈现形状记忆效应(SME)+SE,而Ti-50.8Ni-0.3Cr合金则呈现SE。退火温度也显著影响Ti-Ni合金的低温形变特性。在10℃变形时,400～500℃退火态Ti-50.8Ni合金呈现SME,550～650℃退火态Ti-50.8Ni合金呈现SME+SE,而400～650℃退火态Ti-50.8Ni-0.3Cr合金则持续呈现SE。     

In situ TEM observation of stress-induced martensitic transformations and twinning processes in CuAlNi single crystals

Stress-induced martensitic transformations and twinning processes were studied in thin foils of CuAlNi single crystals strained in situ in a transmission electron microscope. The nucleation and growth of the martensite plates were monitored for three transformation processes known from bulk experiments: (i) the transformation of austenite into 2H martensite at low-stress levels; (ii) the twinning/detwinning processes in 2H martensite; and (iii) the transformation between austenite and 18R martensite at higher stress levels. The morphology of the austenite/martensite habit planes was examined, and the existence of planar interfaces between a single variant of 2H martensite and austenite on the microscopic level was proven.     

0.6Ni中碳合金钢的奥氏体连续冷却转变行为

通过热模拟试验、光学和扫描电镜(SEM)观察以及维氏硬度测试,研究了0.6Ni中碳合金钢的动态和静态奥氏体连续冷却转变规律,分析了变形以及合金元素Ni对中碳合金钢奥氏体转变行为的影响。结果表明:奥氏体变形有效抑制了0.6Ni中碳合金钢连续冷却后铁素体和珠光体的形成,大幅促进了贝氏体和马氏体相变,将全马氏体临界冷速由5 ℃/s降低到3 ℃/s。试验钢在动态连续冷却条件下,冷速为3 ℃/s时,全马氏体组织显微硬度为810 HV0.1;而静态连续冷却条件下,冷速为5 ℃/s时,全马氏体组织显微硬度为689 HV0.1。奥氏体变形的再结晶细化作用可以明显细化冷却后的马氏体组织,进而提高马氏体的硬度。在奥氏体静态连续冷却条件下,中碳合金钢中0.6Ni元素的加入,抑制了铁素体和珠光体相变,大幅促进贝氏体和马氏体相变,提高了奥氏体的稳定性,将Ms点从329 ℃降低到304 ℃,马氏体临界冷速从0.5 ℃/s降低到0.3 ℃/s;相对于约0.4Mn元素的加入,0.6Ni元素的加入可以大幅抑制铁素体和珠光体相变,可以将Ms点从320 ℃降低到304 ℃,同时可以有效细化奥氏体冷却后的显微组织。     

Temperature memory effect of Ti50Ni30Cu20 (at.%) alloy

After the reverse thermal induced martensitic transformation process of shape memory alloy is arrested at a temperature between the reverse transformation start and finish temperatures (A_s and A_f), and then cooled to a temperature below M_f, a kinetic stop will occur in the next heat flow curve during the heating process. The kinetic stop is closely related to the arrested temperature. This phenomenon is called temperature memory effect (TME). TME of Ti₅₀Ni₃₀Cu₂₀ (at.%) shape memory alloy with phase transformation between B2 austenite and B19 martensite has been investigated by differential scanning calorimeter in this paper. The results indicate that TME of Ti₅₀Ni₃₀Cu₂₀ alloy only exists in the heating process.     

Phase transformation yield surface determination for some shape memory alloys

Like in the “plasticity” theory, the prediction of phase transformation yield surfaces constitutes an essential issue in the modelling of polycrystalline shape memory alloys thermomechanical behaviour. Usually for “micro–macro” integration, the nature of the interface between austenite and twinned or untwinned martensite under stress free state and the choice of correspondence variants (CV) or habit plane variant (HPV) are predominant toward the explicit shape of the phase transformation surface. If the predictions for Cu–Al–Be, Cu–Al–Zn (interface between austenite and one single variant of martensite for cubic to monoclinic phase transformation) and Cu–Al–Ni (interface between austenite and twinned martensite for cubic to orthorhombic phase transformation) are fairly good; the prediction is not efficient in the important case of Ti–Ni (interface between austenite and twinned martensite with stress free state for cubic to monoclinic phase transformation). The usual hypothesis consisting in neglecting the effect of stress on the interface geometrical configuration must be revised.     

泰勒法制备的Ni-Mn-In-Co合金纤维的磁热效应

采用泰勒法制备了直径范围在30~100μm之间的玻璃包裹Ni-Mn-In-Co合金纤维。利用综合物性测量系统（PPMS）研究了磁场对制备态和退火态纤维马氏体相变温度的影响,并且从M-B曲线中分别计算得出了制备态和退火态纤维的磁热效应。研究结果表明：制备态纤维在室温下为7M马氏体结构。在制备态和退火态纤维中,奥氏体相变开始温度随外加磁场变化速率（ΔAs/ΔB）分别为-1.6和-4 K/T。退火态纤维在As点附近发生磁场诱发马氏体向奥氏体逆相变。退火态纤维最大磁熵变为3.0 J/（kg·K）,远大于制备态纤维的0.5 J/（kg·K）。Ni-Mn-In-Co合金纤维的大磁熵变和低成本使其成为最具潜力的磁制冷材料之一。     

Thermal stability of nanocrystalline layer prepared by surface mechanical attrition in 0Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel

By means of surface mechanical attrition (SMA), a nanostructured surface layer was formed on a 0Cr18Ni9Ti austenite stainless steel plate. A strain-induced martensite transformation was observed during SMA treatment, and a single magnetic martensite phase layer with thickness of about 30 μm was gotten. The grain growth and phase transformations in the nanocrystalline layer are investigated during heating. The grain growth exponent for nanocrystalline polycrystalline steel is estimated. The kinetics mechanism governing the grain growth in the nanocrystalline layer is discussed. The martensite in the surface layer is quite stable and the temperature at which the reverse transformation of martensite to austenite starts during heating is about 500 ℃.     

20CrMnTi钢的等温相变行为分析及动力学建模

利用Gleeble-3500热模拟试验机对20CrMnTi钢在不同温度和保温时间进行了等温膨胀试验,得到其相变热膨胀曲线。结合光学显微镜分析了20CrMnTi钢的等温相变行为,绘制了该钢的等温相变曲线(TTT曲线)。引入Johnson-Mehl-Avrami(JMA)方程和Koistinen-Marburger(KM)方程分别建立了该钢的扩散型相变动力学模型和非扩散型相变动力学模型。结果表明:20CrMnTi钢的TTT曲线呈“双C型”,鼻温分别为630和530 ℃。在730~580 ℃等温时,奥氏体转变为珠光体+铁素体,随着温度的降低,等温相变速度先加快后减慢;580~430 ℃等温时,奥氏体转变为贝氏体,随着温度的降低,等温相变速度也是先加快后减慢;低于430 ℃等温时,奥氏体转变为马氏体,随着温度的降低,马氏体的体积分数先较快增大后减缓。所推导的20CrMnTi钢的动力学模型计算结果与试验结果一致性较好。     

Ti-Ni-V形状记忆合金及其弹簧的相变和形变特性

用X射线衍射仪、示差扫描量热仪和拉伸实验研究了退火温度Tan和形变温度Td对Ti-50.8Ni-0.5V形状记忆合金丝及其弹簧的相变和形变特性的影响。结果表明:400～600℃退火态合金的室温相组成为B2和R相。冷却/加热时,350～400℃退火态合金发生A→R/R→A(A—母相,R—R相)一阶段可逆相变;450～500℃退火态合金发生A→R→M/M→R→A(M—马氏体相)两阶段可逆相变;550℃退火态合金发生A→R→M/M→A型相变;600℃退火态合金发生A→M/M→A一阶段可逆相变。随Tan升高,R相变温度先升高后降低,M相变温度先升高后趋于稳定,M相变热滞快速降低,而R相变热滞则几乎不受退火温度影响。随Td和Tan升高,退火态Ti-50.8Ni-0.5V合金弹簧的应力诱发M临界切应力升高。     

形变温度对FeMnSiCrNiC合金第二相方向性析出及记忆效应的影响

基于控制第二相方向性析出提高铁基合金形状记忆效应的构想,研究了不同形变温度对Fe13.53Mn4.86Si8.16Cr3.82Ni0.16C合金γ/ε界面(母相丫与诱发马氏体ε之间界面)的数量和结构及随后时效第二相析出的数量和方向性的影响,以及第二相析出的数量和方向性对马氏体相变和形状记忆效应的影响.扫描电镜分析显示,形变温度远高于Ms时,无γ/ε面产生,时效后第二相析出少;形变温度接近Ms时,产生大量γ/ε面,时效后析出第二相数量很多,且方向性良好;形变温度进一步接近Ms时,γ/ε界面交叉,导致时效后方向性的第二相也交叉.透射电镜分析显示,析出方向性Cr23C6第二相的合金再次进行预变形时,产生的应力诱发马氏体具有单一方向.原因在于方向性Cr23C6及其产生的应力场对马氏体相交产生约束作用,避免马氏体片之间的交叉,使其具有更好的可逆转变性.     

Atomic force microscope study of stress-induced martensite formation and its reverse transformation in a thermomechanically treated Fe–Mn–Si–Cr–Ni alloy

Consecutive observations of the stress-induced martensite formation and its reversion by atomic force microscopy have been carried out for the fcc/hcp transformation in the thermomechanically treated sample of an Fe–Mn–Si–Cr–Ni shape memory alloy. It is found that thin martensite plates of 0.1–0.2 μm thickness, which are the same martensite variant on the same habit plane, are formed one after another at the immediate neighbor of the existing martensite plate. These martensite plates make a group of several plates within the width of 1–2 μm. This formation mode of martensite is compared with those martensite plates observed by high resolution microscopy and optical microscopy and it is concluded that the basic mode of the stress-induced transformation is that each martensite plate is induced to relieve the shape strain of the existing martensite plate for all the observed magnifications ranging from several hundreds to several millions. The first martensite plate formation is presumed to occur at the pre-existing stacking fault in austenite. In the reverse transformation on heating, it is likely that each martensite plate is reverse-transformed one after another by reverse movement of the Shockley partial dislocations residing at the tip of the plate. This seems to be true for every range of the observable magnification from namometres to microns. Such a reverse transformation mode ensures a good shape memory effect in Fe–Mn–Si-based shape memory alloys.     

Co对Ti-Ni形状记忆合金相变和形变特性的影响

用热重分析仪、X射线衍射仪、示差扫描量热仪及拉伸试验研究了Co对Ti-49.8Ni(at%,下同)形状记忆合金相变和形变特性的影响。结果表明,中温退火态Ti-49.8Ni合金冷却/加热时的相变类型为A→R→M/M→A(A—母相,R—R相,M—马氏体相);随退火温度升高,该合金的马氏体相变温度升高,R相变温度先升高后降低;该合金室温相组成为马氏体,具有形状记忆效应(SME)。用1%Co置换等量Ti后所得Ti-49.8Ni-1Co合金冷却/加热时的相变类型为A→R→M/M→R→A,相变温度低,室温组成相为母相A,具有超弹性(SE)特性。退火温度低于600℃时,Ti-Ni基合金的SME和SE特性良好,退火温度超过600℃后,合金氧化加剧,SME和SE特性变差,塑性显著提高。     

一种矿山机械用贝氏体耐磨铸钢的连续冷却转变曲线

运用膨胀法同时结合显微组织观察及硬度测试确定了一种矿山机械用贝氏体耐磨铸钢的连续冷却转变曲线。结果表明:该矿山机械用贝氏体耐磨铸钢的Ac₁、Ac₃、Ms分别约为790、845和303 ℃;当冷却速度低于0.05 ℃/s时,组织为铁素体和珠光体;当冷却速度介于0.05 ~0.1 ℃/s之间时,组织为铁素体+珠光体+贝氏体;当冷却速度在0.25~15 ℃/s之间,为贝氏体+马氏体复相组织;当冷却速度大于30 ℃/s时,奥氏体几乎全转变为马氏体组织;马氏体临界转变速度在15~30 ℃/s之间。随着冷却速度的增加,显微硬度先快速增加后趋于585 HV0.01。     

Features of Electroplastic Effect in Alloys with Martensite Transformation

Influence of different electric current modes(pulse and direct) on occurrence of the electroplastic effect under uniaxial tension in the coarse-grained alloys with martensite transformations is investigated. The materials are shape memory Ti_(49.3) Ni_(50.7) alloy and metastable austenite transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel. The paper contains experimental results of current impact on the ‘‘stress–strain" curves of the material. It has been taken an experimental measurement of the sample temperature during the test. It is shown that the shape of a stress–strain curves and type of the serrate plastic flow, connected with the martensitic transformation and electroplastic effect, depend on the current modes. Impact of pulse current and direct current suppresses shape memory and TRIP effect.     

An in situ neutron diffraction study of shape setting shape memory NiTi

A bulk polycrystalline Ni_49.9Ti_50.1 (at.%) shape memory alloy specimen was shape set while neutron diffraction spectra were simultaneously acquired. The objective was to correlate internal stress, phase volume fraction, and texture measurements (from neutron diffraction spectra) with the macroscopic stress and shape changes (from load cell and extensometry measurements) during the shape setting procedure and subsequent shape recovery. Experimental results showed the evolution of the martensitic transformation (lattice strains, phase fractions and texture) against external constraints during both heating and cooling. Constrained heating resulted in a build-up of stresses during the martensite to austenite transformation, followed by stress relaxation due to thermal expansion, final conversion of retained martensite, and recovery processes. Constrained cooling also resulted in stress build-up arising from thermal contraction and early formation of martensite, followed by relaxation as the austenite fully transformed to martensite. Comparisons were also made between specimens pre-shape set and post-shape set with and without external constraints. The specimens displayed similar shape memory behavior consistent with the microstructure of the shape set sample, which was mostly unchanged by the shape setting process and similar to that of the as-received material.     

Isothermal and athermal martensitic transformations in Ni–Ti shape memory alloys

Ni–Ti shape memory alloys are known to demonstrate three possible transformation paths between B2 and B19′ phases, B2–R–B19′, B2–B19′ and B2–B19–B19′, depending on their composition and thermo-mechanical treatment. In this work the isothermal kinetics of accumulation of martensite/austenite for all types of martensitic transformations in Ni–Ti and Ni–Ti–X (X = Fe or Cu) has been studied by means of resistance measurements during interruption of cooling/heating scans. Experimental results show that all transformations to the B19′ phase (B2–B19′, R–B19′, B19–B19′) demonstrate a substantial isothermal accumulation of martensite during isothermal dwelling between the martensitic transformation start and finish temperatures. The reverse transformations B19′–R and B19′–B19 are also classified as isothermal. The isothermal accumulation of austenite detected during the reverse B19′–B2 transformation is much less intense, at least partially due to the low sensitivity of resistance to the martensite fraction variation during the reverse transformation, and remains comparable with the resolution of the experimental set-up. The transformations between the B2 and R as well as between the B2 and B19 phases are athermal. Analysis of the entire set of possible transformations in β Ni–Ti systems allows one to conclude that isothermal transformations possess a much broader hysteresis and transformation range compared with athermal ones. Since the hysteresis of the transformation is related to the friction forces acting on interfaces this fact, and also observation of the isothermal effects during reverse martensitic and intermartensitic transformations, strongly support the interpretation of the observed isothermal effects in Ni–Ti as due to the diffusionless but thermally activated motion of interfaces during transformation. The difference between the transformation to B19′ martensite (isothermal) and all others (athermal) is attributed to a distinction in strain accommodation.     

不同热处理条件下贝氏体钢的微观组织和疲劳裂纹扩展

以贝氏体钢为研究对象,设计了4种热处理工艺,研究了不同热处理工艺下试验钢的显微组织及疲劳裂纹扩展速率。结果表明,热轧态试验钢的微观组织以粒状贝氏体为主,其上分布有少量的板条贝氏体、马氏体和粗大块状M/A岛,残留奥氏体的体积分数为16.2%,但稳定性较差,裂纹能够直接穿过粗大的块状M/A岛继续扩展,疲劳裂纹扩展速率最快。经900 ℃奥氏体化+空冷后,显微组织以板条贝氏体和马氏体为主,M/A岛仍为粗大的块状,残留奥氏体含量减少至12.3%,疲劳裂纹扩展速率略有降低。经900 ℃奥氏体化+380 ℃盐浴等温30 min +空冷后,显微组织以细密、有序的板条贝氏体为主,残留奥氏体含量减少至10.2%,以薄膜状伴生在板条贝氏体间,板条状贝氏体及板条间的残留奥氏体薄膜会使裂纹端钝化、分叉、偏折,阻碍裂纹扩展的能力增强;经350 ℃回火240 min后,显微组织以马氏体和板条贝氏体为主,残留奥氏体含量比热轧态略微降低,为14.9%;而经450 ℃回火240 min后,显微组织以板条状贝氏体为主,其上分布有少量的马氏体,残留奥氏体体积分数减少至8.6%,也以薄膜状伴生在贝氏体板条间,同时有大量的碳化物析出,裂纹扩展速率最慢。     

Functionally-graded shape memory alloy by diffusion annealing of palladium-coated NiTi plates

Diffusion annealing of palladium-coated Ti-Ni plates was performed at temperatures ranging from 900 °C to 1,000 °C, to accomplish a compositional gradient in Ti-rich, Ti-Ni shape memory alloys. The aim of this study was to increase the transformation temperatures and transformation temperature intervals. Palladium diffusion profiles were measured by energy dispersive spectroscopy, and the corresponding approximate diffusion coefficients of the annealed specimens were calculated. The Gaussian solution of Fick’s second law for the one-dimensional lattice diffusion of a tracer was used. The transformation behavior studies were performed by differential scanning calorimetry. It was depicted that annealed specimens show longer transformation intervals compared to the bare alloy. In addition, annealed specimens showed improved shape memory properties that were attributed to the lower amount of Ti₂Ni precipitates in the diffusion layer. The shape memory behaviour of the samples was detected using micro-indentation at room temperature, followed by heating them above the austenite formation temperature to calculate the shape recovery ratio.     

Size dependence of martensite transformation temperature in nanostructured Ni-Mn-Sn ferromagnetic shape memory alloy thin films

In the present study, we report the influence of grain size on structural and phase transformation behaviour of nanostructured Ni-Mn-Sn ferromagnetic shape memory alloy thin films synthesized by dc magnetron sputtering. With increase in substrate temperature, the structural phase changes from austenite with L2₁ cubic crystal structure to martensite with monoclinic structure. In addition, field-induced martensite-austenite transformation is observed in magnetization studies using superconducting quantum interference device magnetometer. The martensitic transformation behaviour of these films depends critically on the microstructure and dimensional constraint. Both, the martensite start temperature (M_s) and austenite finish temperature (A_f) of these nanostructured films decreases with decreasing grain size. The excess free volume associated with grain boundaries has been observed to increase with decrease in grain size which in turn leads to an increase in the number of grain boundaries. It has been proposed that the grain boundaries impose constraints on the growth of the martensite and confine the transformed volume fraction in nanocrystalline structure. A martensite phase nucleated within a grain will be stopped at the grain boundaries acting as obstacles for martensite growth. The investigations revealed that below a critical grain size of 10.8 nm, the austenite phase is observed to be more stable than the martensite phase which leads to the complete suppression of martensitic transformation in these films.