Workplace user frustration with computers: an exploratory investigation of the causes and severity

When hard-to-use computers cause users to become frustrated, it can affect workplace productivity, user mood and interactions with other co-workers. Previous research has examined the frustration that students and their families face in using computers. To learn more about the causes and measure the severity of user frustration with computers in the workplace, we collected modified time diaries from 50 workplace users, who spent an average of 5.1 hours on the computer. In this exploratory research, users reported wasting on average, 42 - 43% of their time on the computer due to frustrating experiences. The largest number of frustrating experiences occurred while using word processors, email and web browsers. The causes of the frustrating experiences, the time lost due to the frustrating experiences, and the effects of the frustrating experiences on the mood of the users are discussed in this paper. Implications for designers, managers, users, information technology staff and policymakers are discussed.     

Severity and impact of computer user frustration: A comparison of student and workplace users

User frustration with information and computing technology is a pervasive and persistent problem. When computers crash, network congestion causes delays, and poor user interfaces trigger confusion there are dramatic consequences for individuals, organizations, and society. These frustrations, not only cause personal dissatisfaction and loss of self-efficacy, but may disrupt workplaces, slow learning, and reduce participation in local and national communities. Our exploratory study of 107 student computer users and 50 workplace computer users shows high levels of frustration and loss of 1/3–1/2 of time spent. This paper reports on the incident and individual factors that cause of frustration, and how they raise frustration severity. It examines the frustration impacts on the daily interactions of the users. The time lost and time to fix problem, and importance of task, strongly correlate with frustration levels for both student and workplace users. Differences between students and workplace users are discussed in the paper, as are implications for researchers.     

What Frustrates Screen Reader Users on the Web: A Study of 100 Blind Users

Abstract

In previous research, the computer frustrations of student and workplace users have been documented. However, the challenges faced by blind users on the Web have not been previously examined. In this study, 100 blind users, using time diaries, recorded their frustrations using the Web. The top causes of frustration reported were (a) page layout causing confusing screen reader feedback; (b) conflict between screen reader and application; (c) poorly designed/unlabeled forms; (d) no alt text for pictures; and (e) 3-way tie between misleading links, inaccessible PDF, and a screen reader crash. Most of the causes of frustration, such as inappropriate form and graphic labels and confusing page layout, are relatively simple to solve if Webmasters and Web designers focus on this effort. In addition, the more technically challenging frustrations, such as screen reader crashes and conflicts, need to be addressed by the screen reader developers. Blind users in this study were likely to repeatedly attempt to solve a frustration, not give up, and not reboot the computer. In this study, the blind users reported losing, on average, 30.4% of time due to these frustrating situations. Implications for Web developers, screen reader developers, and screen reader users are discussed in this article.     

A model for computer frustration: the role of instrumental and dispositional factors on incident,session, and post-session frustration and mood

Frustration is almost universally accepted as the emotional outcome of a negative computing experience. Despite the wide use of the term, however, it has not been rigorously conceptualized as a factor in the study of the human–computer interface. This project sets out to explicate frustration as a pre-emotional state generated by the user’s appraisal of the interface as an impediment to goal attainment, and looks at how user characteristics, such as self-efficacy, relate to it. This project employed episode report methodology to capture data from 144 computer users’ reports of actual frustrating events as they took place. Diaries taken as users worked at their everyday tasks yield detailed data about the problems they encountered and included information about session length and an estimate of the time lost due to the experiences. Outcomes were measured as either situational or dispositional factors. Situational factors, having to do with specific events, predicted incident frustration. However, disposition variables, especially user self-efficacy, were much stronger, predicting incident and session frustration, and post-session mood. One surprising outcome was the failure of demographic variables as predictors of frustration.     

Determining Causes and Severity of End-User Frustration

Although computers are beneficial to individuals and society, frequently users encounter frustrating experiences when using computers. This study represents an attempt to measure, in 111 participants, the frequency, the cause, and the level of severity of frustrating experiences. The data show that frustrating experiences happen on a frequent basis. The applications in which the frustrating experiences happened most frequently were Web browsing, e-mail, and word processing. The most-cited causes of frustrating experiences were error messages, dropped network connections, long download times, and hard-to-find features. The time lost due to frustrating experiences ranged from 47% to 53% of time spent on a computer, depending on the location and study method. After extreme cases were discarded, the time lost was still above 38%. These disturbing results should be a basis for future study.     

Computer use by older adults: A multi-disciplinary review

As the populations of most of the world’s developed nations experience an increase in average age, a similar trend is being observed in the population of computer and Internet users. In many cases, older adults are the fastest growing computer and Internet user group in both personal and workplace contexts. However, the needs and concerns of older adults as computer users differ from those of younger users as a result of the natural changes associated with the aging process. Much research has been conducted in a variety of fields in order to understand how these changes experienced by older adults impact their use of computers and the Internet. This article reviews this existing research and provides a holistic view of the field. Since the study of computer use by older adults is a multi-disciplinary topic by nature, we provide a synthesis of the findings across these many disciplines, and attempt to highlight any gaps that exist. We use Social Cognitive Theory as a lens to view and organize the literature, as well as illustrate means through which computer use by this user group can be encouraged. Finally, suggestions for future research are proposed, and implications for research and practice are discussed.     

This computer responds to user frustration:: Theory,design, and results

Use of technology often has unpleasant side effects, which may include strong, negative emotional states that arise during interaction with computers. Frustration, confusion, anger, anxiety and similar emotional states can affect not only the interaction itself, but also productivity, learning, social relationships, and overall well-being. This paper suggests a new solution to this problem: designing human–computer interaction systems to actively support users in their ability to manage and recover from negative emotional states. An interactive affect–support agent was designed and built to test the proposed solution in a situation where users were feeling frustration. The agent, which used only text and buttons in a graphical user interface for its interaction, demonstrated components of active listening, empathy, and sympathy in an effort to support users in their ability to recover from frustration. The agent's effectiveness was evaluated against two control conditions, which were also text-based interactions: (1) users’ emotions were ignored, and (2) users were able to report problems and ‘vent’ their feelings and concerns to the computer. Behavioral results showed that users chose to continue to interact with the system that had caused their frustration significantly longer after interacting with the affect–support agent, in comparison with the two controls. These results support the prediction that the computer can undo some of the negative feelings it causes by helping a user manage his or her emotional state.     

The concept and correlates of computer anxiety

The introduction of computers into the lives and workplaces of many individuals represents a dramatic change. Zuboff has used the term 'computer-mediated' work to describe how the increasingly intellectual nature of work and the availability of computers is creating a revolution in the workplace. There is a real concern about how individuals react both cognitively and emotionally to the introduction of computer technology. The growth of the end-user computing phenomenon has made this concern more acute. Although many individuals have little difficulty using computers, there remains a far larger population of users who experience considerable difficulty learning how to use computer systems. Computer anxiety is a widely occurring phenomenon for this group of users, whose job performance and success may depend on their interaction with computers. Reviewing the literature, this paper describes the nature and correlates of computer anxiety and assesses training as a mechanism for reducing the impact of this anxiety. Limitations in current knowledge are noted and suggestions for further research are described.     

Integrating Human Inputs with Autonomous Behaviors on an Intelligent Wheelchair Platform

Nearly five million individuals in the US have limited arm and hand movement, making it difficult or impossible for them to use computers and products with embedded computers, such as wheelchairs, household appliances, office electronic equipment, and robotic aids. Although some current wheelchair systems have embedded computers, they have very little computer control and require precise, low-level control inputs from the user; interfaces are similar to those found in passenger cars. The rider must continuously specify the chair's direction and, in some cases, velocity using a joystick-like device. Unfortunately, many users who could benefit from powered wheelchairs lack these fine motor skills. For instance, those with cerebral palsy might not be able to guide a chair through a narrow opening, such as a doorway, without repeatedly colliding into the sides. These types of physically challenging environments can be frustrating and require a lot of user effort. At the University of Pennsylvania's general robotics, automation, sensing, and perception lab, we developed the smart chair, a smart wheelchair with intelligent controllers that lets people with physical disabilities overcome these difficulties. By outfitting the wheelchair with cameras, a laser range finder, and onboard processing, we give the user an adaptable, intelligent control system. A computer-controlled wheelchair's shared control framework allows users complete control of the chair while ensuring their safety     

A data mining technique for discovering distinct patterns of hand signs: implications in user training and computer interface design

Hand signs are considered as one of the important ways to enter information into computers for certain tasks. Computers receive sensor data of hand signs for recognition. When using hand signs as computer inputs, we need to (1) train computer users in the sign language so that their hand signs can be easily recognized by computers, and (2) design the computer interface to avoid the use of confusing signs for improving user input performance and user satisfaction. For user training and computer interface design, it is important to have a knowledge of which signs can be easily recognized by computers and which signs are not distinguishable by computers. This paper presents a data mining technique to discover distinct patterns of hand signs from sensor data. Based on these patterns, we derive a group of indistinguishable signs by computers. Such information can in turn assist in user training and computer interface design.     

A data mining technique for discovering distinct patterns of hand signs: implications in user training and computer interface design

Hand signs are considered as one of the important ways to enter information into computers for certain tasks. Computers receive sensor data of hand signs for recognition. When using hand signs as computer inputs, we need to (1) train computer users in the sign language so that their hand signs can be easily recognized by computers, and (2) design the computer interface to avoid the use of confusing signs for improving user input performance and user satisfaction. For user training and computer interface design, it is important to have a knowledge of which signs can be easily recognized by computers and which signs are not distinguishable by computers. This paper presents a data mining technique to discover distinct patterns of hand signs from sensor data. Based on these patterns, we derive a group of indistinguishable signs by computers. Such information can in turn assist in user training and computer interface design.     

Computers that recognise and respond to user emotion: theoretical and practical implications

Prototypes of interactive computer systems have been built that can begin to detect and label aspects of human emotional expression, and that respond to users experiencing frustration and other negative emotions with emotionally supportive interactions, demonstrating components of human skills such as active listening, empathy, and sympathy. These working systems support the prediction that a computer can begin to undo some of the negative feelings it causes by helping a user manage his or her emotional state. This paper clarifies the philosophy of this new approach to human–computer interaction: deliberately recognising and responding to an individual user's emotions in ways, that help users meet their needs. We define user needs in a broader perspective than has been hitherto discussed in the HCI community, to include emotional and social needs, and examine technology's emerging capability to address and support such needs. We raise and discuss potential concerns and objections regarding this technology, and describe several opportunities for future work.     

Evidence-based guidelines for the informal use of computers by children to promote the development of academic,cognitive and social skills

The use of computers in the home has become very common among young children. This paper reviews research on the effects of informal computer use and identifies potential pathways through which computers may impact children's development. Based on the evidence reviewed, we present the following guidelines to arrange informal computer experiences that will promote the development of children's academic, cognitive and social skills: (1) children should be encouraged to use computers for moderate amounts of time (2–3 days a week for an hour or two per day) and (2) children's use of computers should (a) include non-violent action-based computer games as well as educational games, (b) not displace social activities but should instead be arranged to provide opportunities for social engagement with peers and family members and (c) involve content with pro-social and non-violent themes. We conclude the paper with questions that must be addressed in future research.

Practitioner Summary: This paper reviews research on the effects of informal computer use on children's academic, cognitive and social skills. Based on the evidence presented, we have presented guidelines to enable parents, teachers and other adults to arrange informal computer experiences so as to maximise their potential benefit for children's development.     

Problem solving,confidence and frustration when carrying out familiar tasks on non-familiar mobile devices

Smart mobile devices, which are hand-held electronic devices with an advanced operating system (such as the Android platform) connected via a wireless protocol, have become an integral and essential part of our everyday life, and support both social and workplace activities. However, adopting mobile technology within the workplace setting can give rise to challenges that impact user behaviour and performance. A study was carried out amongst 90 participants located in two countries, using internet connectivity as a case study. Confidence and frustration have previously been connected with technology competence, but this was not applied to a workplace scenario during problem-solving, when users are assigned an unfamiliar smart mobile device. This research focuses on identifying the link between workplace users' levels of confidence and frustration when seeking to independently solve problems whilst completing familiar tasks on new smart mobile devices. A detailed video analysis of users' attitudes and behaviour during problem-solving was conducted, emphasising a correlation between attitudes and behaviour towards completing a task.     

Beyond cognition and affect: sensing the unconscious

In the past decade, research on human–computer interaction has embraced psychophysiological user interfaces that enhance awareness of computers about conscious cognitive and affective states of users and increase their adaptive capabilities. Still, human experience is not limited to the levels of cognition and affect but extends further into the realm of universal instincts and innate behaviours that form the collective unconscious. Patterns of instinctual traits shape archetypes that represent images of the unconscious. This study investigated whether seven various archetypal experiences of users lead to recognisable patterns of physiological responses. More specifically, the potential of predicting the archetypal experiences by a computer from physiological data collected with wearable sensors was evaluated. The subjects were stimulated to feel the archetypal experiences and conscious emotions by means of film clips. The physiological data included measurements of cardiovascular and electrodermal activities. Statistical analysis indicated a significant relationship between the archetypes portrayed in the videos and the physiological responses. Data mining methods enabled us to create between-subject prediction models that were capable of classifying four archetypes with an accuracy of up to 57.1%. Further analysis suggested that classification performance could be improved up to 70.3% in the case of seven archetypes by using within-subject models.     

Understanding children's collaborative interactions in shared environments

  Traditional computer technology offers limited support for face-to-face, synchronous collaboration. Consequently, children who wish to collaborate while using computers must adapt their interactions to the single-user paradigm of most personal computers. Recent technological advances have enabled the development of co-located groupware systems offering support for concurrent, multi–user interactions around a shared display. These systems provide a unique collaboration environment in which users share both the physical and the virtual workspace. This paper examines how such technology impacts children's collaboration. Findings from this research show that when concurrent, multi–user interaction is supported on a shared display, children exhibit collaborative behaviour similar to their interactions during paper-based activities. The findings also suggest strengths and weaknesses of various mechanisms for supporting synchronous interactions that have implications for the design of computer systems to support children's face-to-face collaboration.     

The sensitive interface

One of the most important problems in human-computer interaction is that of maximising communication between the user and the computer. We claim that optimum communication will be facilitated when the computer can analyse and respond to the intentions of the computer user. We propose a philosophy for computer interface design in which the computer analyses the intentions of users through verbal and nonverbal media. With respect to verbal media we describe a computer program called Operating System CONsultant (OSCON) which can analyse users' intentions from English in the domain of computer operating systems. With respect to nonverbal media we argue that computers will be better able to analyse people's intentions when recognising the media of facial expression, touch, and sound. Some results and implications from a recent experiment on cross-cultural emotions in faces are discussed. We describe the IDIOMS (Intelligent Decision-making In On-line Management Systems) project which implements a design philosophy for capturing users' concepts and intentions. We argue that this approach will ensure the computers will become more understanding of their users and this will result in a more sensitive human-computer interface.     

Simulating the DYNIX operating system parallel programming interface on a UNIX system

This paper presents the implementation of multitasking functions of DYNIX Sequent computers on the UNIX operating system. The Sequent computers are shared memory multiprocessor computers running the DYNIX operating system. These functions support data and function partitioning. They let the user implement subprograms by the processors of a Sequent computer in parallel. The functions can synchronize, lock, and unlock data and program segments. As a result, the simulator allows the users to develop their multitasking programs on a uniprocessor computer such as a SUN workstation, and later port them to a Sequent computer. Further, the simulator adds a level of abstraction on top of UNIX for concurrent programming. The functions of the simulator allow the user to handle the communication and synchronization of the processes in a program at a higher level of abstraction, while concentrating on the design of multitasking algorithms. The simulator is applied to a parallel selection algorithm. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Computer user training and attitudes: a study of business undergraduates

For many users, the first real encounter with a computer occurs when taking an introductory course to computers at a college. To the extent that these training courses impact user understanding and motivation, they are important determinants of the user attitudes towards computers and merit serious assessment. Using 327 business undergraduates at two universities in the US, this paper reports on the reactions of students to computers and computer-related tasks before and after an introductory course to computers. Responses to a 20-item scale were analysed to examine the pattern of attitude change experienced by students in their training course. Factor analysis revealed five constructs for describing patterns of computer user attitude: negative reaction to computers; positive reaction to computers; reaction to computers for children education; reaction to computer-mediated services; and reaction to computer games. Four factors show significant change in mean scores after the training courses. The attitudes changed for males more than females, indicating improvement in attitudes. The respondents' attitude to computer-mediated services remained unchanged. While the directions of changes indicate an overall improvement in respondents' reactions, many attitudes did not change significantly after having taken the training courses. This may be due to the content or the format of these courses.     

Situated Computing: A Paradigm for the Mobile User-Interaction with Multimedia Sources

Today, users interact with computers in an explicit manner and the system's response is independent from their situations. Hence, it is difficult to integrate computers with working life as embedded tools, which can facilitate users to accomplish real world objectives easily. Situated computing is a new paradigm for mobile computer users based on their physical context and activities carried out as a part of their working business. It provides the mechanism to have a mobile computer as a utility to satisfy the user's real world requirements as well as an infrastructure for the situated interaction using applications. In this paper, we are presenting a metaphor called situation metaphor to model interaction between the user and mobile computers in order to achieve expectations of situated computing. A three-layered schema is followed in developing situation metaphor. We discuss extensively the theoretical foundation and framework for the situation metaphor, and followed by applications developed based on the framework.