New type of standard for accessibility, designed to foster the competition and innovation of designers, developers, and project and business management

This paper describes the many beneficiaries of accessibility to IT, creating a multifaceted business opportunity. Evolution is underway as some organizations and governments develop and adopt accessibility standards and regulations. But organized planning, design and development of technology solutions require improved tactics and strategies. The very recent US Section 508 is a new and novel regulatory marketing strategy in the evolution of standards. This regulatory standard's effectiveness dependents upon the 'innovation and divergent thinking' of those directly involved in product design. Designers, developers and their management are most comfortable with an analytical structure based on improved definition and measurement. Research will improve understanding of the human performance requirements of the client audience. Research and standards should continue but certain areas are in need of more immediate focus, e.g. human performance requirements in cognition.     

Acceptance,emotion and behaviour

Abstract

The introduction of standards will hopefully ensure that users can access particular computer resources through a communications network for their own purposes without major problems. The International Standards Organisation (ISO) has developed a seven-layer reference model which is to be used for the purpose of incorporating standards relating to the interconnection of open systems (OSI). It is important that the human factors requirements are considered in relation to this model if the aim of generality of use is to be achieved. This paper considers some of the major human factors requirements and describes an approach to translating them into design standards which can be implemented. The approach starts from a consideration of user activity and develops into a language interface which could reside in layers of the reference model.     

Software accessibility standards and guidelines: progress, current status, and future developments

This article reviews progress in the development of standards and guidelines for software accessibility, including those developed within international and US standards bodies. Key factors driving efforts to identify and define effective design guidelines for software accessibility include demographic trends and the graying population, new legislation and the increasing pervasiveness of information technology and devices. An overview of the US Software Accessibility draft standard, including accessibility-focused design guidance for Interactive Voice Response (IVR) systems, is provided. A variety of resources providing design guidance for improved accessibility are identified, and expected developments in formal standards for software accessibility are discussed.     

Designing Common Control Frameworks: A Model for Evaluating Information Technology Governance,Risk, and Compliance Control Rationalization Strategies

ABSTRACT

Information security professionals are faced with increasing compliance obligations associated with laws, regulations, and industry standards. Meeting multiple control framework requirements separately can be costly and inefficient due to similarities between various frameworks that produce redundancy duplication of effort in the organization's compliance initiatives. To mitigate these inefficiencies many organizations are seeking to streamline and rationalize frameworks in ways that combine overlapping control objectives into a smaller set of controls that still meet the requirements of all frameworks included. This article discusses strategies for such rationalizations, including the benefits and limits of specific strategies.     

Human factors contributions to the acceptance of computer-supported systems

Abstract

MoD equipment procurement projects within the naval sector are required to carry out Human factors Integration Programmes (HFIPs) as part of their procurement activities. These cover the subject areas of manpower and personnel, human engineering, training, environmental ergonomics, habitability, and health and safety. The project management team write the design policy papers for the programme of work, and state the standards that will apply. The design policy states priorities for any particular design area, in line with RN requirements and policy for the total system. It will also state the approach to acceptance. This paper describes an initial framework for describing the human factors acceptance tests and criteria in the case of computer-supported systems. The relationship between system requirements, standards, and acceptance criteria is discussed. The importance of requirements, and their associated design drivers, is considered with respect to its implications for the construction of acceptance tests. The characteristics of the framework and its contents are outlined. The latter cover test specifications and the subject areas covered during acceptance, i.e. facilities, usability and task characteristics in the cases of operations, training and maintenance. Possible extensions of the framework are suggested. Acceptance is seen as involving assessment of the validity of a design. The concept of a valid design is introduced, and discussed in relation to design policy.     

A SysML-based approach to traceability management and design slicing in support of safety certification: Framework,tool support,and case studies

ContextTraceability is one of the basic tenets of all safety standards and a key prerequisite for software safety certification. In the current state of practice, there is often a significant traceability gap between safety requirements and software design. Poor traceability, in addition to being a non-compliance issue on its own, makes it difficult to determine whether the design fulfills the safety requirements, mainly because the design aspects related to safety cannot be clearly identified.ObjectiveThe goal of this article is to develop a framework for specifying and automatically extracting design aspects relevant to safety requirements. This goal is realized through the combination of two components: (1) A methodology for establishing traceability between safety requirements and design, and (2) an algorithm that can extract for any given safety requirement a minimized fragment (slice) of the design that is sound, and yet easy to understand and inspect.MethodWe ground our framework on System Modeling Language (SysML). The framework includes a traceability information model, a methodology to establish traceability, and mechanisms for model slicing based on the recorded traceability information. The framework is implemented in a tool, named SafeSlice.ResultsWe prove that our slicing algorithm is sound for temporal safety properties, and argue about the completeness of slices based on our practical experience. We report on the lessons learned from applying our approach to two case studies, one benchmark and one industrial case. Both studies indicate that our approach substantially reduces the amount of information that needs to be inspected for ensuring that a given (behavioral) safety requirement is met by the design.     

Does size matter? Spacious car cockpits may increase the probability of parking violations

Abstract

Cockpit design is a core area of human factors and ergonomics (HF/E). Ideally, good design compensates for human capacity limitations by distributing task requirements over human and interface to improve safety and performance. Recent empirical findings suggest that the mere spatial layout of car cockpits may influence driver behaviour, expanding current views on HF/E in cockpit design. To assess the reliability of findings showing that an expansive driver seat space predicts parking violations, we replicated an original field study in a geographically and socio-culturally different location and included an additional covariate. After controlling for car length, brand status, and car price, driver seat space remained a positive predictor of illegal parking. This suggests that the spatial design of vehicle cockpits may indeed have an influence on driver behaviour and may therefore be a relevant dimension to be included in research and applications of HF/E in cockpit design.

Practitioner summary: In car cockpit design, ergonomists typically focus on optimising human–machine interfaces to improve traffic safety. We replicate evidence showing that increasing physical space surrounding the driver relates to an increased probability of parking violations. This suggests that spatial design should be added to the ergonomist's toolbox for reducing traffic violations.     

Relating Individual Differences to the Dimensions of Human Tasks

Abstract

The need for systems of classifying tasks which would lead to improved generalisations and predictions of human performance is stressed. A learning and performance theory which ascribes task dimensions a central role is considered critical. Some issues and alternatives in developing and evaluating taxonomies of human task performance are discussed. Recent work with the ‘ability requirements’ and ‘task characteristics’ approaches are reviewed and empirical work with them are evaluated. Particular attention is given to their utility in describing human task performance, predicting learning, standardised task batteries, estimating job task requirements, and organising findings in the performance literature. A research paradigm and a number of recent applications are described for linking the abilities and task characteristic approaches. A taxonomic system which combines these approaches appears to have promise for enhancing predictions and generalisations about human performance.     

Legitimate by design: Towards trusted socio-technical systems

Legitimacy or 'fairness' seems a key requirement for trust in computer-mediated social environments. Trust in turn seems necessary for productive community interactions like e-commerce. But unless legitimacy is built into social software, achieving trust may not be possible. This means expressing apparently vague social 'rights' as specific information system (IS) requirements, i.e. carrying out a legitimacy analysis. We suggest a framework for the systematic analysis of who 'owns' what in IS design, assuming basic object types and actions. This analysis not only allows social legitimacy concepts to be expressed in IS design terms, but could also reveal socio-technical system design choices for public review. The technique is illustrated by case examples. Legitimacy analysis can apply to wide variety of social software, from chat rooms to virtual realities. It could lead to future global standards for virtual social environment design, perhaps necessary for the emergence of a global online community.     

Ergonomics action research II: a framework for integrating HF into work system design

This paper presents a conceptual framework that can support efforts to integrate human factors (HF) into the work system design process, where improved and cost-effective application of HF is possible. The framework advocates strategies of broad stakeholder participation, linking of performance and health goals, and process focussed change tools that can help practitioners engage in improvements to embed HF into a firm's work system design process. Recommended tools include business process mapping of the design process, implementing design criteria, using cognitive mapping to connect to managers’ strategic goals, tactical use of training and adopting virtual HF (VHF) tools to support the integration effort. Consistent with organisational change research, the framework provides guidance but does not suggest a strict set of steps. This allows more adaptability for the practitioner who must navigate within a particular organisational context to secure support for embedding HF into the design process for improved operator wellbeing and system performance.

Practitioner Summary: There has been little scientific literature about how a practitioner might integrate HF into a company's work system design process. This paper proposes a framework for this effort by presenting a coherent conceptual framework, process tools, design tools and procedural advice that can be adapted for a target organisation.     

An exploratory study of the accessibility of state government Web sites

This paper focuses on Web accessibility. Relevant legislation and judicial decisions are reviewed, and prior empirical research is presented. This study presents the results from the Web accessibility analysis of the home pages of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. It found that twenty-nine percent of the home pages do not meet the requirements for Conformance Level A Web accessibility. Only one state meets Conformance Level AA standards, which are the minimum standards recommended for Web accessibility, and no state meets Conformance Level AAA standards. This paper also discusses how to address common accessibility problems.

The Art of the Accessibility Statement

ABSTRACT

Many libraries recognize the need to create Web sites accessible to users with disabilities, as legislated in U.S. Code Section 508, but Section 508 compliance defines a minimum legal level of accessibility. The same technology that can make a Web site available to users with disabilities can also make the site available to users with wireless devices, such as PDAs and cell phones, with Internet access. To bring about “maximum accessibility,” library Web designers need to implement Web standards. This article argues the place to begin implementing these standards is with an accessibility statement which serves as both a contract and a navigational aid.     

Identification of non-functional requirements in textual specifications: A semi-supervised learning approach

ContextEarly detection of non-functional requirements (NFRs) is crucial in the evaluation of architectural alternatives starting from initial design decisions. The application of supervised text categorization strategies for requirements expressed in natural language has been proposed in several works as a method to help analysts in the detection and classification of NFRs concerning different aspects of software. However, a significant number of pre-categorized requirements are needed to train supervised text classifiers, which implies that analysts have to manually assign categories to numerous requirements before being able of accurately classifying the remaining ones.ObjectiveWe propose a semi-supervised text categorization approach for the automatic identification and classification of non-functional requirements. Therefore, a small number of requirements, possibly identified by the requirement team during the elicitation process, enable learning an initial classifier for NFRs, which could successively identify the type of further requirements in an iterative process. The goal of the approach is the integration into a recommender system to assist requirement analysts and software designers in the architectural design process.MethodDetection and classification of NFRs is performed using semi-supervised learning techniques. Classification is based on a reduced number of categorized requirements by taking advantage of the knowledge provided by uncategorized ones, as well as certain properties of text. The learning method also exploits feedback from users to enhance classification performance.ResultsThe semi-supervised approach resulted in accuracy rates above 70%, considerably higher than the results obtained with supervised methods using standard collections of documents.ConclusionEmpirical evidence showed that semi-supervision requires less human effort in labeling requirements than fully supervised methods, and can be further improved based on feedback provided by analysts. Our approach outperforms previous supervised classification proposals and can be further enhanced by exploiting feedback provided by analysts.     

The role of anthropometry in designing for sustainability

An understanding of human factors and ergonomics facilitates the design of artefacts, tasks and environments that fulfil their users’ physical and cognitive requirements. Research in these fields furthers the goal of efficiently accommodating the desired percentage of user populations through enhanced awareness and modelling of human variability. Design for sustainability (DfS) allows for these concepts to be leveraged in the broader context of designing to minimise negative impacts on the environment. This paper focuses on anthropometry and proposes three ways in which its consideration is relevant to DfS: reducing raw material consumption, increasing usage lifetimes and ethical human resource considerations. This is demonstrated through the application of anthropometry synthesis, virtual fitting, and sizing and adjustability allocation methods in the design of an industrial workstation seat for use in five distinct global populations. This work highlights the importance of and opportunities for using ergonomic design principles in DfS efforts.

Practitioner Summary: This research demonstrates the relevance of some anthropometry-based ergonomics concepts to the field of design for sustainability. A global design case study leverages human variability considerations in furthering three sustainable design goals: reducing raw material consumption, increasing usage lifetimes and incorporating ethical human resource considerations in design.     

INTERACTIVE COMPUTER-AIDED PLANNING: ESTIMATING HEALTH CARE RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS

Abstract

The “Interactive Resource Requirement Estimation Program” is a computer program, designed to support the decisionmaker in health care agencies. The model computes the expected requirements in the inpatient and outpatient sector. These requirements depend on the expected population growth and the development of contacts to health care services, as well as standards derived from the planner's objectives. The program works interactively, incorporating the planner into the process of model parameter definition. By adjusting and readjusting the parameters he can control the output, until feasible requirements are reached. An illustrative model run using health care standards for Austria is given.     

Ameritech's usability laboratory: from prototype to final design

Abstract

Abstract. Ameritech's human factors organization was established in 1989, and from the beginning its charter assumed that user-centred design, iterative usability testing, and beginning-to-end involvement in the product-system development cycle would be central to its work. This article describes the laboratory resources that were created to support the organization. It identifies the needs of the human factors professionals using the lab that served as requirements for the design of the resources, and the interim lab that was built where implementation approaches to some of these requirements were tested and refined. It describes the final laboratory, as well as three different kinds of portable labs. The laboratory is a critical corporate resource, and while it continues to evolve as it is used, it has already demonstrated its value to the human factors organization it serves.     

Development of a volumetric projection technique for the digital evaluation of field of view

Current regulations for field of view requirements in road vehicles are defined by 2D areas projected on the ground plane. This paper discusses the development of a new software-based volumetric field of view projection tool and its implementation within an existing digital human modelling system. In addition, the exploitation of this new tool is highlighted through its use in a UK Department for Transport funded research project exploring the current concerns with driver vision. Focusing specifically on rearwards visibility in small and medium passenger vehicles, the volumetric approach is shown to provide a number of distinct advantages. The ability to explore multiple projections of both direct vision (through windows) and indirect vision (through mirrors) provides a greater understanding of the field of view environment afforded to the driver whilst still maintaining compatibility with the 2D projections of the regulatory standards.

Practitioner Summary: Field of view requirements for drivers of road vehicles are defined by simplified 2D areas projected onto the ground plane. However, driver vision is a complex 3D problem. This paper presents the development of a new software-based 3D volumetric projection technique and its implementation in the evaluation of driver vision in small- and medium-sized passenger vehicles.     

An analogue and propositional hybrid model for the perception of computer generated graphical images

Abstract

This research investigated two alternative models, analogue and propositional, which describe how three-dimensional (3-D) graphical images are represented and stored in human memory. In order to differentiate between the two models, three separate experiments were performed using a variation of the Shepard-Metzler mental rotation paradigm (Shepard and Metzler 1971). For each experiment, the effects of three independent variables on the performance of a ‘mental rotation’ task were examined: (a) three levels of figure complexity, ( b) three axes of rotation and (c) four angles of rotation. The subjects' task was to compare specific angle, axis or depth versus picture plane rotations for pairs (rotated and non-rotated versions) of 3-D graphic figures displayed on a CRT. The results indicated that response times varied depending on level of figure complexity, axis or angle of rotation. A new hybrid model integrating components of both the analogue and propositional positions is proposed to explain the reaction time data. In this model, analogue processes occur when processing requirements for cognitive tasks are low, whereas propositional processes occur when processing requirements are high. Implications of the results for the internal representation of 3-D images in human memory and for the design of graphic work stations are discussed.     

Calculational derivation of a counter with bounded response time and bounded power dissipation

Summary A counter is calculationally designed by applying a functional way of programming, in which a machine is conceived as a function from states to behaviours. The design exploits the fine-grained concurrency available in VLSI. It is obtained by applying a series of correctness-preserving transformations on an initial design, which satisfies the functional specification but does not meet the cost/performance requirements. The transformations are purely calculational, i.e. they are based on a few simple axioms. The design is generic in that it describes counters with all possible periods. An attractive property of the design is that all these counters have the same response time as well as the same power dissipation. Joep Kessels is a senior scientist at Philips Research Laboratories. He was involved in projects on applicative programming, distributed processing and local area networks. Currently he is engaged in a project on designing asynchronous VLSI circuits. His main research interests are design methodology and distributed processing.