Cognitive controls and mental retardation.

Devised a color-digit interference task and 2 sorting tasks as variants of the Stroop Color-Word Test and R. Gardner, et al. (see record 1961-02266-001) sorting tasks, respectively. These tasks proved applicable to a mentally retarded sample (n = 39) and provided reliable measures of 2 cognitive control dimensions (constricted-flexible control and equivalence range). As predicted, the main test scores were significantly more variable in retarded Ss than in normals (n = 32). Analyses of performance on the color-digit interference task indicated that retarded Ss were significantly slower than the normals on all parts of the task, particularly under conditions of distraction (whether inherent in the task or externally imposed). Low IQ retarded Ss were significantly slower than high IQ retarded Ss on all parts of the task. The extreme cognitive control test scores of the retarded Ss, the nature of the attentional deficit among these Ss, and the relevance of a cognitive control approach for the training of retarded persons are discussed. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acquired equivalence and distinctiveness in matching to sample by pigeons: Mediation by reinforcer-specific expectancies.

Assessed the ability of a reinforcer to mediate an association between 2 stimuli that independently predict the occurrence of that reinforcer (acquired equivalence of cues). In Exp I, 12 male White Carneaux pigeons were trained on shape (plus and circle) and color (red and green) matching-to-sample tasks. Correct responses were systematically reinforced with corn on some trials and wheat on others to establish associations between 1 stimulus from each task and a "common" outcome. Following training, Ss were transferred to a symbolic matching-to-sample task wherein a stimulus from one training task was presented as the sample, and the stimuli from the other training task were presented as comparisons. In the 1st session, experimental Ss made significantly more correct responses than controls (i.e., Ss "matched" stimuli previously associated with a common outcome). Exp II with 18 Ss replicated this acquired equivalence effect and controlled for food preference. Delayed matching-to-sample training demonstrated enhanced memory performance for Ss exposed to different reinforcement contingencies, but this effect was confined to the shape task. Results indicate that a reinforcer can serve as the basis for organizing otherwise unpaired predictive cues in memory and that animals will selectively use differential expectancies as cues for solving complex discrimination tasks, depending on the difficulty of the discrimination. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support, life events, and depressive symptoms: A 1-year prospective study.

Examined associations between life events, social support, and depressive symptoms in a sample of 709 married women. Ss were administered the SCL-90, a life events scale, a social support scale, and a marital conflict scale in 1981 and again 1 yr later. For a sample of 473 Ss who initially were relatively asymptomatic and reported nonconflicted marital relationships, life events and social support were significant prospective predictors of depressive symptomatology (assessed 1 yr later). In contrast, identical analyses performed on the full, unselected sample yielded discrepant, likely misleading, results. The implications of these findings for the longitudinal study of dynamically interactive processes are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Area and volume conservation among the elderly: Assessment and training.

Conducted 2 studies to examine whether the elderly maintain the competence to adequately solve problems of logical thinking. In the 1st study the performance of 60 noninstitutionalized middle-class elderly females was assessed on area and volume conservation tasks. On overall performance only 33.3% of the Ss were classified as conservers. In the 2nd study a training paradigm was used to determine whether simple verbal feedback activated the strategies required for adequate performance on conservation tasks. 22 Ss who failed at least 2 conservation tasks in the assessment study were administered a 20-trial training procedure. Half of these Ss received simple verbal feedback following each response, while half received no feedback. Results on an immediate posttest indicated that the feedback group performed significantly better than the control group on the near transfer posttest task and on the majority of far transfer tasks. The results are discussed in terms of a distinction between competence and performance. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive attributional style in psychiatric inpatients: Effects of reinforcement level and assessment procedure.

Examined the effect of contextual variation on depressive attributional style in 42 psychiatric inpatients divided into depressed (mean age 36.43 yrs) and control (mean age 30.52 yrs) groups on the basis of their responses to the Beck Depression Inventory. Ss received 20%, 50%, or 80% reinforcement on a task. Three measurement variables were evaluated: (a) when the attributions were produced (during vs after the task), (b) how the attributions were made (generating vs selecting influences), and (c) who provided the dimensional scores (Ss vs raters). The expected group differences on the attributional composite occurred only under the 20 and 50% reinforcement conditions. Group differences were demonstrated only when Ss made attributions after the task (when Ss selected attributions from a list). However, when the Ss generated their own influences after the task, group differences emerged only when they and not the raters provided the dimensional scores. Findings suggest that depressive attributional style is dependent on contextual factors and parameters of measurement. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observational learning of quantity conservation and Piagetian generalization tasks.

20 1st graders who had scored 9 or less on a pretest of 8 Piagetian criterion tasks were divided into control and experimental groups. Experimental Ss underwent an observational learning phase in which a model correctly performed the 1st task used in the pretest, giving correct conservation judgments supported by justifications alternately based on identity, compensation, or reversibility considerations. All Ss were given the same 8 Piagetian tasks used in the pretest on immediate, 1-wk, and 3-mo delayed posttests. The experimental group generalized conservation to several tasks. One category of Ss behaved as rote learners and maintained conservation only for tasks closely similar to the modeled task and on immediate and 1-wk delayed posttest; a 2nd group of genuine conservers progressively generalized the conservation rule to more difficult tasks. The control group remained nonconserving throughout. Results are explained with reference to the Piagetian concept of sequential equilibration. The social experience of observation appeared to activate a cognitive restructuring of the Ss' mental operations. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond competence and performance: Children's class inclusion strategies, superordinate class cues, and verbal justifications.

72 children (aged 4–10 yrs) were given 2 class inclusion tasks in which the superordinate class was perceptually and linguistically marked or unmarked. A minor subclass question was also asked in order to estimate the rates of children's underlying solution strategies. Results indicated that (1) the performance of 4–6 yr olds was inflated by guessing, (2) scores were higher in the marked task as compared with the unmarked task because of different rates of inclusion logic, and (3) children's verbal justifications closely approximated their estimated true competence, contrary to common assumptions. The conclusion is drawn that the relation between verbal justification and intrapsychic inference is an important theoretical issue, not merely a question of measurement validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in incidental learning.

Examined the effects of age and of incidental-learning tasks on recall of a categorized word list. Ss were 50 18-30 yr old college students and 50 55-65 yr old teachers. The control groups were instructed to remember the words; incidental-learning groups performed orienting tasks, but were not informed that they would have to recall the words. 2 orienting tasks required that Ss process the meaning of the words; the other 2 orienting tasks did not involve semantic processing. Analysis of the free-recall data indicates that the semantic processing tasks led to much greater recall and organization of recall than the nonsemantic orienting tasks. In recall, there was a significant interaction between age and orienting task, with old Ss only manifesting incidental learning that was inferior to young Ss, whose orienting task involved semantic processing. The findings indicate that the presence or absence of an age-related decrement in incidental learning is predictable from the depth of processing of the incidentally acquired material. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of spatial arrangement and heterogeneity in the development of concepts of numerical equivalence.

Studied the development of concepts of equivalence, using a series of 3 tasks with 256 4-8 yr old children. A simple equivalence task, which involved the matching of numerically equal and spatially similar arrays, was significantly easier than the nonlinear equivalence task which required the matching of numerically equivalent, but spatially dissimilar, arrays. The heterogeneous equivalence task, which required matching of numerically and spatially equivalent, but heterogeneous, groups of stimuli was significantly more difficult than the simple equivalence and nonlinear equivalence tasks. The simple equivalence task was the easiest and the heterogeneous equivalence task was the hardest for the 4-5 yr olds (p     

Saccadic system functioning among schizophrenia patients and their first-degree biological relatives.

In Study 1, 30 schizophrenia Ss and 27 nonpsychiatric comparison Ss were presented with a fixation task, a visually guided reflexive saccade (prosaccade) task, a predictive tracking task (0.4-Hz square wave), and an antisaccade task. The 2 groups did not differ on either the fixation or prosaccade tasks. Schizophrenia Ss had an increased number of errors on the antisaccade task and had decreased rightward visually guided saccade amplitudes during the predictive tracking task. In Study 2, 13 psychiatric comparison Ss and 32 1st-degree biological relatives of the schizophrenia Ss were compared with the schizophrenia Ss and a larger and older sample of nonpsychiatric Ss (n?=?33) on the predictive tracking and antisaccade tasks. The groups did not differ on predictive saccadic tracking. The schizophrenia Ss and their 1st-degree biological relatives made more errors on the antisaccade task than both the nonpsychiatric and psychiatric comparison groups (who did not significantly differ). Results are consistent with the notion that dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, or both is related to liability for schizophrenia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paired-associate and serial learning in retarded readers.

Exp I examined 68 9-13 yr old retarded readers on a paired associate task using the anticipation method and a serial-learning task using the study-test method. Intratask correlations were highly significant for each task, but intertask correlations were negligible. However, the 2 tasks also differed in difficulty. Exp II, with 27 additional like Ss, tested whether serial learning was easier with the anticipation method and whether paired associate and serial learning performance remained unrelated when difficulty was comparable. Serial learning was significantly easier, scores were comparable to paired associate scores, and most paired associate and serial learning measures were highly correlated. It is concluded that the performance of retarded readers may be determined more by difficulty than by type of task. Anticipation methods may be preferable to study-test methods for such children. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some effects of sleep deprivation on tracking performance in static and dynamic environments.

The influence of 34 and 55 hrs of sleep deprivation on scores derived from manually tracking the localizer needle on an aircraft instrument was assessed in 2 experiments under both static (no motion) and dynamic (whole-body angular acceleration) laboratory conditions. In each study, 20 21–30 yr old men, equally divided into control and sleep-deprived groups, were tested in an enclosed rotator, in darkness with the exception of the illuminated tracking display. Significant decrements in dynamic performance were uniformly obtained after 24 hrs and more of sleep loss. Static scores were less consistently impaired. Administration of d-amphetamine after 55 hrs of sleep loss reduced error for both static and dynamic tracking; although performance at both tasks remained poorer for sleep-deprived Ss, their static tracking scores did not differ significantly from controls 2 hrs after drug ingestion. Results indicate clear performance impairment for an aviation-related task after 1 night without sleep. Impairment is generally greater with increasing amounts of sleep loss and is more pervasive in motion environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task construction and persistence as means for self-assessment of abilities.

In Exp I, 80 18–22 yr old Israelis performed 2 tasks and received feedback designed to manipulate independently the uncertainty regarding their standing on 2 abilities. Ss were then allowed to construct new tasks by determining the number of items from these ability domains. As predicted, the number of items chosen from each ability domain was directly related to Ss' uncertainty in that ability, so that the self-constructed tasks were predominantly composed of problems assessing the ability of which Ss were least certain. In Exp II, 80 17–28 yr olds worked as much as they wished on a task varying in diagnostic value and received either success or failure trial-by-trial feedback. It was expected that persistence would decrease with task diagnosticity. Results support this prediction and demonstrate that Ss were equally persistent when succeeding and failing. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When two wrongs make a right: Promoting cognitive change by social conflict.

89 1st graders and 25 2nd graders were given information about conservation tasks that conflicted with their prior nonconservation judgments. Ss in a social interaction situation had higher conservation posttest scores than Ss who were given conflicting information in role-playing, imitation, and control conditions. The spontaneous generation of conservation assertions that occurred in the social interaction condition was related to significantly higher posttest scores. Results suggest that even incorrect information that conflicts with a prior but equally erroneous belief can stimulate cognitive growth. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concrete operational thought and developmental aspects of solutions to a task based on a mathematical three group.

Individually tested 6, 8, and 10-yr-old lower-middle-class Ss for their learning of a mathematical 3 group, rotations of an equilateral triangle. Ss were assessed on 9 Piagetian tests of concrete operations. Except for an initial phase in which the fundamentals of the task were learned, the 6 yr olds were significantly inferior to the older Ss in learning to combine 2 rotations, in learning to replace combinations by a 3rd element, and in retaining their skill with a closed mapping when tested on the learning material and on transfer material. Operativity correlated with performance on all the tasks of the mathematical group except for the initial preparatory phase. Data support the conclusion that if concrete operations can be described by groupings, operational Ss can establish closure in a mathematical group. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A caregiver report comparison of temperamental characteristics of Down Syndrome and normal infants.

The temperamental characteristics of Down's syndrome (DS) and nonhandicapped infants were compared using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ). 15 parents participating in a longitudinal study of their DS infants responded to a caregiver-report instrument, including the IBQ, at 3-mo intervals during the 1st yr of life. These data were compared to responses of a larger sample of parents of normal infants at 6, 9, and 12 mo of age. Differences at 2 or more ages were found for scales assessing smiling and laughter, duration of orienting, fear (distress and latency in approaching intense or novel stimuli), vocal activity, startle, and motor development. DS Ss had lower scores on smiling and laughter and higher scores on duration of orienting. DS Ss also had lower scores on scales measuring motor development and vocal activity and higher scores on fear and startle. No differences were found in activity level, distress to limitations, or soothability. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in response to the behavioral treatment of Raynaud's disease.

30 23–54 yr old female patients with idiopathic Raynaud's disease were subjected to 1 of 4 behavioral treatments designed to facilitate digital vasodilation. The Ss were administered the Psychological Screening Inventory prior to treatment. All treatment conditions demonstrated significant improvement in digital skin temperature assessed during a cold stress test administered both before and after treatment. Ss with low scores on the Alienation scale of the Psychological Screening Inventory demonstrated significantly more improvement than Ss with high scores. In addition, older Ss responded better than younger Ss to these behavioral treatments. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and change in patterns of participation in a parent–child program.

Investigated variations in participation in a neighborhood-based educational support program in 35 18–39 yr old low-income and working-class White mothers of young children who were involved in 6 different parent groups for 1 yr. 30 other Ss had dropped out of participation during this period. Interview data were collected every 6 mo, and staff members kept records of attendance and telephone interactions with Ss. Program participation indices were attendance, relations with program peers, and use of staff services during the 1st 12 mo of involvement. Results show that 8 Ss were peer oriented, 8 Ss were staff oriented, 9 Ss demonstrated increased staff use, and 10 Ss had low involvement. Ss in the 1st 2 groups moved quickly to establish relationships, while Ss in the last 2 groups took a longer time to use program resources. Findings suggest a need for longitudinal measurement of the treatment in evaluation research, a conceptualization of intensive interventions as multidimensional, and the potential usefulness of focusing on interpersonal ties in an intervention program when measuring the treatment. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of justice beliefs on cognitive appraisal of and subjective physiological, and behavioral responses to potential stress.

Investigated the moderating role of just world beliefs on stress and coping processes. Ss high and low in belief in a just world were asked to perform a potentially stressful laboratory task, which was repeated once. Cognitive appraisals and subjective, autonomic, and behavioral responses were recorded for each of the 2 tasks. The results supported a stress-moderating effect for just world beliefs. lndividuals high in just world beliefs had more benign cognitive appraisals of the stress tasks, rated the tasks as less stressful post hoc, had autonomic reactions consistent with challenge (vs threat), and outperformed Ss low in just world beliefs. Discussion centers on factors that moderate the experiences of challenge and threat in potentially stressful situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)