Performance, cognition, and physiological responding in test anxiety.

Autonomic (skin conductance and resistance, heart rate, and heart rate variability), self-report (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and causal attributions of task performance), and performance (modified Stroop Color–Word Test and 8 difficult anagrams) measures of anxiety were collected from 36 test-anxious and 36 non-test-anxious (Test Anxiety Scale) female undergraduates in an analog testing situation under 3 experimental conditions. High-test-anxious (HTA) Ss performed more poorly and reported higher levels of anxious arousal and worry in the analog testing situation than low-test-anxious (LTA) Ss. Also, self-evaluations of test performance made by HTA Ss differed from those made by LTA Ss in being more negative and unrelated to actual test performance. However, HTA and LTA Ss showed virtually identical changes in electrodermal activity and heart rate in response to the stress of the testing situation. Only heart rate variability, which appeared to reflect differences in the cognitive and attentional responses of the test anxiety groups, successfully differentiated HTA and LTA Ss. Results support cognitive formulations of test anxiety and indicate that deficits in information processing associated with test anxiety do not result from maladaptive levels of autonomic arousal. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and ineffective test taking: Different names, same construct?

Investigated the relative contributions of test anxiety and exam-taking skills to information-processing deficits in a dual-task paradigm. Under stress instructions, 64 high- and low-test-anxious college students with either good or poor exam-taking skills alternately performed a primary task (Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices) separately and concurrently with a secondary task (a backward digit span test). Results indicate that exam-skilled, high-anxious Ss performed comparably with skilled, low-anxious peers on the primary Raven task, yet significantly worse on the concurrent backward digit span task. Conversely, high-anxious, unskilled Ss were exceeded by low-anxious, unskilled peers on both tasks. Findings suggest that test anxiety and exam-taking ability independently influence cognitive problem solving in the evaluative setting. It is suggested that although good exam skills can compensate for anxiety-induced deficits in working-memory capacity by refocusing attention toward the task, processing deficits still emerge as task demands increase. Measures of state anxiety and cognitive interference further suggest that a negative internal focus, not arousal, underlies such deficits. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Encouragement, anxiety, and test performance.

"To determine the effect of encouragement on the individual test performance of Ss with varying amounts of anxiety, two anxiety scales were first administered to a sample of college students… three groups of Ss were selected and designated low-, medium-, and high-anxiety. To each S was individually administered the MacQuarrie Test for Mechanical Ability… . On the basis of scores on this test, each anxiety category was divided into two equated groups. Six weeks later the test was again individually administered to each S, this time encouraging comments being offered between subtests to one group in each category but not to the other. Two-tailed t tests revealed only one significant finding: the performance of the low-anxiety Ss displayed increased variability under encouragement." 23 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The assessment of anxiety in psychological experimentation: A theoretical reformulation and test.

The paper begins with an extensive formulation of anxiety from the psychoanalytic frame of reference and 2 traditional methods of investigating the phenomenon, viz., questionnaire method on level of experienced anxiety and attempts to create anxiety regarding fictitious reports of inadequate performance on certain tasks. Limitations of this methodology were discussed in the light of psychoanalytic theory. It was assumed that experienced or not, anxiety will be consequent when a drive is aroused which is perceived as being dangerous, and that the effects of such anxiety can be demonstrated in terms of interference with a complex problem solving task. Ss were exposed to a situation designed to arouse anxiety and their general level of defensiveness was measured. High and low defensive Ss performed differentially in the problem solving situation (anagrams). From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4HK66R. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Field independence–dependence and cognitive restructuring.

Investigated the hypothesis that field-independent (FI) individuals are more efficient in their use of cognitive restructuring skills than are field-dependent (FD) individuals. 32 FI and 32 FD female undergraduates, as assessed by the Hidden Figures Test, were required to solve a series of anagrams under either an easy or difficult anagram condition. Ss received 5 anagrams constructed from "social" words and 5 anagrams constructed from "nonsocial" words. The resulting repeated measures design allowed for an assessment of the performance effectiveness of FI and FD as well as an examination of the possible differential influences of word "socialness" and anagram difficulty. Analysis of anagram performance indicated that FI Ss found it easier than FD Ss to provide a disorganized field with organization. FI Ss solved the anagrams significantly quicker than did FD Ss. Consistent with this finding, FD Ss perceived the anagram task as being significantly more difficult than did FI Ss. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and visual vigilance.

Conducted a visual vigilance task (VVT) to determine sensitivity and criterion measures for 20 male and 20 female undergraduate students scoring high or low in test anxiety under either test or no-test conditions. Ss, who were classified as high or low on the basis of the Test Anxiety Scale, were instructed to report the occurrence of brief visual signals over a 36-min period of continuous watchfulness. The VVT was described to half the Ss as a measure of ability on which they were being tested; to the other half, it was described as an investigation of the usefulness of the procedure for future research. Findings show that the detection rate declined across the 36 min of the task among Ss high in test anxiety who believed that they were being tested and in Ss low in test anxiety who did not. False detection rates revealed no significant differences among conditions. Analysis of sensitivity to signals according to statistical decision theory revealed low sensitivity in both the high-anxiety test and low-anxiety/no-test conditions than in the other 2. Analysis of decisional criteria showed that Ss in the high-anxiety test condition were more conservative in setting a criterion than Ss in the other 3 conditions. No sex differences were found. Results are discussed in terms of an elaboration of I. G. Sarason's (1979) model of test anxiety. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships among manifest anxiety, response to stress, and the perception of autonomic activity.

Recorded the GSRs of a total of 48 male undergraduates with high or low anxiety levels (as measured by the MA scale), during exposure to a mild ego-involving stress or a nonstress condition. After an initial rest period, Ss in the stress condition were asked to identify their own "emotional responses" while monitored by a "lie detector." Results indicate that high-anxiety Ss showed a significant increase in GSR rate in the stress period when compared with low-anxiety Ss. Nonstress Ss showed no difference as a function of anxiety level. It is concluded that scores on the MA scale reflect "reactive" anxiety, the autonomic components of which are differentially elicited by ego-involving stress situations. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of anxiety level and psychological stress on verbal learning.

"It was predicted that under neutral conditions high anxiety (high drive) Ss would exhibit a performance superior to that of low anxiety (low drive) Ss on a paired-associate learning task with minimal intratask interference but that under conditions of psychological stress (report of inadequate prior performance) high anxiety Ss, due to the greater arousal of interfering extratask responses, would no longer exhibit the superiority found under neutral conditions. Results indicated that while the high anxiety Ss under neutral instructions were significantly superior to the low anxious, as predicted, and the Ss operating under stress were inferior to their neutral controls, the predicted interaction between anxiety level and stress was not found." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intrinsic vs. extrinsic job orientation and reported anxiety under different task conditions.

Identified 192 male undergraduates, 96 intrinsically oriented (IO) and 96 extrinsically oriented (EO). Each group was divided into 4 comparable subgroups. 2 of the subgroups attempted to solve 40 simple anagrams, 1 alone and 1 observed, while the other 2 worked on 30 difficult anagrams under the same 2 conditions. Each of the 8 subgroups was further dichotomized into 12 low and 12 high anxious Ss. The experiment involved a 2 (IO vs. EO) * 2 (low vs. high anxiety) * 2 (alone vs. observed) * 2 (simple vs. difficult problems) analysis of variance design. Results show that low anxious EO Ss performed better than high anxious EO Ss in all conditions, while the low anxious IO Ss performed better than the high anxious IO Ss only in the alone simple task condition. No significant differences were found with regard to satisfaction. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of an "anxiety-reducing" medication on group behavior under threat.

Three member teams worked on a group task under three experimental conditions: a threat condition in which Ss received an anxiety reducing medication, a threat condition with Ss receiving no medication, and a control nonthreat condition. Threat was imposed by structuring the sessions as evaluative tests whose results would become part of the Ss ROTC records. The Bales category system was used to obtain behavioral indices and the S's perception of their group and motivational state were obtained from an adjective check list. The results indicate that medication produces changes in the emotional and motivational state of the Ss along three dimensions, anxiety, elation, and assertion. "Medicated groups may be characterized as having an active, non-aggressive 'good time' with no especial concern for effective performance on the task." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and helping behaviour.

Examined children's helping behavior as a function of test anxiety level and evaluative conditions. After taking the Test Anxiety Scale for Children, 72 4th graders completed a task under either evaluative or nonevaluative conditions, and then were given an opportunity to help a younger child with a sorting task. Examination of a significant interaction between anxiety and evaluation revealed that highly test-anxious Ss were most sensitive to the evaluative manipulation, being less likely to help in the evaluative than in the nonevaluative condition. Helping behavior of less anxious Ss did not vary with evaluation. It is suggested that relationships between personality variables and helping behavior should be examined only in combination with clearly specified situational variables. (French summary) (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social anxiety, anxious self-preoccupation, and recall of self-relevant information.

Theoretical and empirical efforts concerning cognitive processes associated with anxiety have typically emphasized either cognitive deficits (i.e., reduced learning, memory, and task performance) or cognitive excesses (i.e., increased self-focused, ruminative thought). Evidence of these 2 types of cognitive processes has primarily been based on different types of sources (performance measures and self-reports), which precludes direct comparisons of the extent to which cognitive deficits and/or excesses characterize anxiety states. The present study attempted to directly compare the cognitive excesses and deficits associated with social anxiety by operationalizing both types of cognitive phenomena with similar performance measures. 97 undergraduates, selected on the basis of high or low scores on the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, performed a modified self-referent depth-of-processing paradigm under stress or no-stress conditions. Socially anxious Ss in a socially evaluative situation evidenced a specific type of cognitive excess (i.e., concern over evaluations by others) but not cognitive deficits. Results are discussed in terms of person-by-situation models of anxiety and the nature and treatment of social anxiety. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of expectation of success to reported probability, task structure, and achievement related motivation.

Male students estimated their chances of success before performing an anagrams task. 3 reported probabilities of success (.20, .50, and .80) were combined with 3 lengths of the puzzle (8, 11, and 14 anagrams), and 14 Ss were randomly assigned to each of the 9 experimental conditions. Probability estimates were found to increase as reported probabilities increased (p     

Cognitive theory and the generality of pessimism among depressed persons.

38 depressed (as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory) and 52 nondepressed college students were given a series of anagrams to solve. A 1-chance subgroup was informed that they would win a free movie ticket if they were successful in the task. A 2nd-chance subgroup received the same instructions as the 1-chance subgroup but were also informed that if they failed, they would have another opportunity in a different, undefined task. Ss were subdivided into success and failure subgroups that either succeeded at or failed the anagram task. Immediately afterwards, Ss reported their emotional state on the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. Depressed Ss reported greater depression, anxiety, and hostility than nondepressed Ss in the 1-chance condition but not in the 2nd-chance condition; this interaction occurred independent of Ss' success or failure in the task. Results are viewed as indicating that current cognitive theories about the generality of pessimism in depression are incomplete. An explanation of the results in terms of the saliency of future reward opportunity is suggested as a basis for further study. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of controlled background interference on test performance by right and left hemiplegics.

Studied the general and lateralized effects of background interference on verbal and perceptual/motor functioning as a function of presence and lateralization of brain damage. 30 non-brain-damaged control patients and 30 right and 30 left hemiplegics (all Ss 53–72 yrs old) were given a word-naming task and the Bender Gestalt Test under noninterference and background interference conditions. As hypothesized, (a) brain-damaged Ss had significantly greater overall interference effects than controls; and (b) laterality effects were significant; verbal interference was greatest in the left-hemisphere-damaged group, and perceptual interference was greatest in the right-hemisphere-damaged group. Implications for treatment programs with such patients are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of preparatory information on enhancing performance under stress.

Research conducted largely in medical and clinical settings suggests that receiving preparatory information prior to a stressful event can reduce negative responses to stress. Although results within this domain have been promising, little research has examined the efficacy of preparatory information on enhancing performance in a more applied task environment. This study examined the effect of preparatory information on reducing stress reactions and enhancing performance on a realistic decision-making task. Results indicated that those who received preparatory information prior to performing under high-stress conditions reported less anxiety, were more confident in their ability to perform the task, and made fewer performance errors than those who received no preparatory information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social anxiety and the evaluation of negative interpersonal feedback.

Results of a study with 211 college students indicate that Ss high and moderate in anxiety perceived the same feedback as being more negative than did lows. In addition, high-anxiety Ss had a greater expectancy that others would evaluate them negatively. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive modification of test anxious college students.

Assigned 15 male and 6 female test anxious 17-25 yr. olds (1 high school student and 20 undergraduates) to a group cognitive modification treatment, group desensitization, or a waiting list control group. The cognitive modification group combined an insight-oriented therapy which was designed to make test anxious Ss aware of their anxiety-engendering thoughts with a modified desensitization procedure which employed (a) coping imagery on how to handle anxiety and (b) self-instructional training to attend to the task and not ruminate about oneself. Results indicate that the cognitive modification group was most effective in significantly reducing test anxiety as assessed by (a) test performance obtained in an analog test situation, (b) self-reports given immediately after posttreatment and later at a 1-mo follow-up, and (c) GPA. Following treatment, the test anxious Ss in the cognitive modification group did not differ from a group of 10 low test anxious Ss, and in fact the cognitive modification Ss reported a significant increase in facilitative anxiety. (63 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Required high effort increases subsequent persistence and reduces cheating.

Two experiments examined the effect of the degree of effort required in preliminary tasks on the persistence and cheating in subsequent tasks. Undergraduates (N?=?276) were administered mathematics problems and perceptual identifications requiring high effort for one group and low effort for another group. A control group received neither of these tasks. All Ss then received an anagram task in which success depended on persistence with no opportunity to cheat (Exp I) or success was improbable and depended on cheating (Exp II). In Exp I, increasing the degree of effort required in the preliminary tasks increased the number of anagrams subsequently solved and increased the duration spent on unsolved anagrams. In Exp II, requiring high effort in the preliminary tasks decreased how often Ss falsified their performances. Results suggest that honesty may be increased by generalized effects of rewarded high efforts. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)