Teasing out cognitive development from cognitive style: A training study.

Tested whether cognitive development and cognitive style (field-dependence/independence) are different dimensions. The present study was conducted in the context of J. Pascual-Leone's (1974) model of cognitive development, in which an important aspect of cognitive development is delineated by mental capacity, and an important dimension of cognitive style is field-dependence/independence. 74 5.5–6.5 and 7.5–8.5 yr old Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 trainers who taught half the group with a method developed by R. Case and the present 1st author (1974), and the other half of the group with a method designed to train Ss to actively look for informational cues. It was found that cognitive development and cognitive style are distinctly different dimensions because posttest data showed that, under training conditions that were suited to S's cognitive style, field-dependent older Ss were able to perform developmentally appropriate "control-of-variables" tasks at the same level as their field-independent age peers. Both of these groups outperformed younger field-independent Ss. Findings are discussed with regard to the theoretical model, their relevance to the stylistic dimension of reflection/impulsivity, and their educational implications. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between cognitive style and cognitive development: A 2-year longitudinal study.

Examined developmental changes in the relationship between reflection–impulsivity, spatial perspective taking, and conservation behavior in 40 4–8 yr olds. Ss were administered the Matching Familiar Figures Test. Results indicate no relationship between these variables for 4-yr-olds. At 6 and 8 yrs of age, however, moderately strong negative correlations were found between impulsivity and the expression of operative knowledge. Structural regression analyses suggested that the expression of a reflective cognitive style at 6 yrs of age was causally linked to the emergence of operativity at 8 yrs of age. Longitudinal data confirmed a developmental shift from what is seen in perspective-taking tasks to how it is seen. Discussion focuses on the role of cognitive styles in the development and use of cognitive structures and on the nature of perspective-taking development. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychological refractory period: Evidence for age differences in attentional time-sharing.

Reports 2 psychological refractory period (PRP) experiments in which the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between Task 1 and 2 was 150, 250, 600, and 1,100 msec for both younger and older adults. H. Pashler's (1994) response-selection bottleneck theory predicts that SOA manipulations should not affect Task 1 performance, but that reaction time (RT) for Task 2 should increase as the SOA between the 2 tasks decreases (i.e., the classical PRP effect). In Exp 1, older adults showed a larger PRP effect, although Task 1 RT was affected by SOA, suggesting that Ss were grouping their responses on some trials. That is, Ss were holding their response for Task 1 until they had completed processing Task 2, and then they responded to both tasks almost simultaneously. However, a subset of Ss who showed no evidence of response grouping on Task 1 continued to show a larger PRP effect for older adults on Task 2. In Exp 2, older adults continued to show a larger PRP effect for Task 2, and Task 1 performance was unaffected by SOA. Findings provide evidence that older adults exhibit a decrement in time-sharing at the response-selection stage of processing. Results suggest that attentional time-sharing needs to be added to the list of topics examined in aging research on varieties of attention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates.

Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual and haptic training and cross-modal transfer of reflectivity.

98 3rd- and 4th-grade boys were individually administered the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT) and the Haptic Matching Task (HMT) in one session. Both are match-to-sample tasks measuring the dimension of reflection–impulsivity, the MFFT in the visual modality and the HMT in the haptic modality. 30 Ss classified as impulsive on both tasks were seen for 2 additional sessions during which they received either reflective scanning strategy training or control procedures and retesting on the 2 tasks. Ss who were visually trained decreased errors only on the MFFT and increased latency on both tasks. Ss who were haptically trained decreased errors and increased latency on the HMT and also on the MFFT. A hypothesis combining task difficulty and motivational and attentional level is offered to explain the asymmetrical transfer of training on errors. It is suggested that the haptic training procedure might be useful with blind Ss. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selected process variables as a function of client type and cognitive complexity in beginning counselors.

Investigated the effect on 4 selected counseling process variables by utilizing multiple measures of cognitive complexity and varied counseling tasks. Cognitive complexity was assessed with 5 separate measures (interconcept distance measure of cognitive complexity, intolerance of trait consistency, intolerance of ambiguity, category width, and paragraph completion test), and counseling tasks consisted of 2 counseling sessions with simulated clients. Ss were 33 22–44 yr old 1st-yr counselors grouped according to their cognitive style. The process variables were counselor–client congruency, counselor empathy, counselor verbal mode, and subrole. The principal findings of the study are as follows: (a) Counselor cognitive complexity did not significantly discriminate between measures of the 4 process variables. (b) There was a significant difference in performance on 3 process variables (counselor subrole, verbal mode, and accurate empathy) between the 2 counseling tasks. (c) There was a significant interaction effect between counseling tasks and the low-complexity group on accurate empathy. Within certain restrictions, it is concluded that differences in the simulated clients appear to be more influential on certain process variables than the information processing style of the student counselor. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-modal transfer in 6-month-old infants.

Investigated in 4 studies with 101 infants 25.5–32 wks of age the ability of Ss to transfer information about shape across modalities. Ss were familiarized either orally or tactually and then tested for visual recognition memory. In Exp I, Ss failed to show evidence of cross-modal transfer on any of the tasks (1 oral–visual, 2 tactual–visual). When familiarization times were increased from 30 to 60 sec in Exp II, Ss showed evidence of transfer on both tactual–visual tasks. Exp III eliminated the 5–7 sec delay that generally intervenes between the familiarization and test phase. Ss were permitted to retain the stimulus in their hand (or mouth) during the test phase while simultaneously viewing a novel stimulus and a duplicate of the familiar stimulus. This modification resulted in successful transfer on 1 of the 2 tactual–visual tasks. Ss did not show evidence of transfer on the oral–visual problem in any of these studies, despite evidence from Exp IV that they could visually discriminate the paired stimuli used in these tasks and that they showed recognition memory when familiarization and testing were both visual. Results suggest that, although cross-modal transfer of information about shape is present among 6-mo-olds, it is a less robust phenomenon than that seen in older infants. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Handedness and "automatization" cognitive style.

Evaluated the relation between "automatization" cognitive style and handedness, or degree of preferred-nonpreferred hand differentiation. 58 male undergraduates were tested on 8 cognitive tasks representing both automatized and nonautomatized abilities. After ipsatization of scores, 14 Ss were chosen as representing "strong automatization," and 14 Ss as "weak automatizers." All Ss were given 6 tests of manual performance using both preferred and nonpreferred hands. No differences were found between strong and weak automatizers in the degree of differentiation between overall preferred and nonpreferred hand performance. Explanations for these findings and the possible role of automatization cognitive style in hand differentiation in young children are discussed. (French summary) (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Association between aerobic fitness and visuospatial performance in healthy older adults.

Examined whether chronic physical exercise activity is associated with better neurocognitive performance in older adults. 105 men participated in 1 of 3 age groups (18–28, 35–45, and 60–73 yrs). For each age group, Ss were classified as high or low in fitness on the basis of self-reported activity levels and the results of a submaximal bicycle ergometer test. A comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests was administered to each S, and older Ss scored significantly lower than the younger groups on most tests. Significant differences between high- and low-fit Ss were found only on tasks with heavy visuospatial demands, and these differences were most notable in the older adult group. These findings suggest that participation in aerobic exercise activity selectively preserves some cognitive functions that normally decline with age. The benefits of activity appear to be most evident on tasks that require visuospatial processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neurolinguistic programming: The impact of imagery tasks on sensory predicate usage.

Investigated the impact of varied imaging tasks on the use of sensory predicates by 45 right-handed White females (aged 18–40 yrs). Ss completed a background questionnaire and 2 imagery questionnaires before completing pleasant and unpleasant imagery tasks in visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic sensory modalities. Four additional tasks included having Ss report a pleasant and an unpleasant image using 5 sensory modalities, and earliest memory, and an accomplishment experience. Randomly selected images were coded by therapists. Previous studies of the neurolinguistic programming have considered sensory predicates as a trait measure, indicative of a person's preferred or primary representation system. Results of the present study demonstrate that Ss were able to vary their type of sensory predicates according to the task demands or situational context. Thus, most Ss were auditory types during auditory imaging tasks and kinaesthetic types during kinaesthetic imaging tasks. Findings are incongruent with R. Bandler and J. Grinder's (1979) conceptualization of representational systems, but they support A. Hammer's (see record 1983-26385-001) recommendations for therapists to continuously track and match clients' sensory predicates. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The performance of kibbutz- and city-reared Israeli children on two role-taking tasks.

Two tasks requiring communicative role taking were administered to 96 1st- and 5th-grade Israeli children in 2 kibbutzim or a large city. It was predicted that the greater peer interaction experienced by Ss in the kibbutz would enhance their role-taking abilities. Results confirm this prediction. Ss from the kibbutz were better able to decenter in formulating a novel message to a listener (Task I) and to differentiate better between a child and adult listener in formulating a message (Task 2). 5th graders performed better on both tasks than 1st graders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The onset of representation and entry into Stage 6 of object permanence development.

Attempted to determine whether infants' performance in 2 search tasks was related to their entry into Stage 6 of object permanence development and thereby to test Piaget's claim that only Stage 6 infants possess the capacity for representation. Ss were 85 10-mo-olds. In these tasks, Ss found either the same toy as or a different toy than they had seen hidden (Task 1) or which their mother had told them to find (Task 2). Two dependent measures used in each task were the Ss' continuation of search and their smiling in reaction to finding a toy. In both longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, Ss in early Stage 6 (i.e., solving a single invisible displacement), but not in Stage 5, responded differentially on these measures. The early Stage 6 Ss continued to search more frequently in reaction to finding the toy in the different than same condition, while they smiled longer and earlier in the same than different condition. Results suggest that infants begin to demonstrate some representative capacity during early Stage 6 of object permanence development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fimbria-Fornix lesions impair spatial working memory but not cognitive mapping.

Evaluated the relative merits of 2 theories of hippocampal function, the cognitive mapping theory, and the working memory theory. 49 albino male rats were tested in a series of maze tasks that varied in memory requirements. In Exps I and III, which required cognitive mapping but not working memory, Ss with fimbria–fornix lesions reached stable levels of performance that were as accurate as those of controls, and they also performed accurately during transfer tests, demonstrating that they used a cognitive mapping strategy to solve the discrimination. In Exp II, which required working memory, Ss with fimbria–fornix lesions performed at chance levels during all of postoperative testing, and they distributed their choices randomly between the correct and the incorrect goals. Results are consistent with the predictions of the working memory but not the cognitive mapping theory. Additional analyses examined the nature of a transitory impairment exhibited by Ss with fimbria–fornix lesions in 2 tasks that did not require working memory. Postoperatively, the performance of the Ss with lesions was initially impaired but recovered to normal levels with a time course similar to that seen during preoperative acquisition. Results require an extension of the working memory theory of hippocampal function, and discussion is focused on the possibility of a temporary retrograde amnesia following fimbria–fornix lesions and the distinctions between different types of memory abilities. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of work task cues and play task cues on information processing, judgment, and motivation.

Explored how task cues affect cognition, attitudes, and behavior in this laboratory study with 82 MBA students. Linguistic analysis of responses to the same puzzle task, cued as either work or play, revealed that task cues influenced how information was perceived and was used to form judgments and to shape behavioral responses. Ss performing work tasks attended more to information about the quantity of their performance and made more streamlined, goal-directed responses. Ss performing play tasks attended more to information about the quality of their performance; made more elaborated, image-laden responses; and were more intrinsically motivated. Links among task cues, cognitive processes, and performance were explicated through path analysis. Task cues affected performance outcomes indirectly by instantiating associated cognitive orientations: a means orientation in play and an ends orientation in work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supreme Court decision making: Cognitive style as a predictor of ideological consistency of voting.

An integrative complexity coding system was used to explore the relations between cognitive style and political ideology among US Supreme Court justices who served on the Court between 1964 and 1978. The integrative complexity of case opinions that Ss authored during their 1st terms on the Court and the overall liberalism–conservatism of their voting records throughout their tenure were assessed. Consistent with past work on cognitive style and political ideology, Ss with liberal and moderate voting records exhibited more integratively complex styles of thought in their early case opinions than did those with conservative voting records. Unexpectedly, these relationships between cognitive style and ideology were more powerful on cases involving economic conflicts of interest than on cases involving civil liberties and rights issues. Results remain significant after controlling for a variety of demographic and background characteristics of the Ss (e.g., age, religion, quality of law school attended) and characteristics of the judicial opinions scored for integrative complexity (unanimous or split-Court, majority–minority status of opinion). Possible explanations for the results and processes that limit the cross-issue generality of relationships between cognitive style and ideology are discussed. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive controls and aggression in children: The concept of cognitive–affective balance.

160 6–15 yr old psychiatric patients (97 males, 63 females) were assigned to high- or low-aggression groups on the basis of their performance on the Miniature Situations Test. The majority of Ss were diagnosed as having attention deficit, conduct, and anxiety disorders; the remaining Ss were diagnosed as having borderline or psychotic disorders. The groups (along with age and sex variables) were compared with 2 tests of the leveling/sharpening cognitive control—one presenting nonaggressive stimuli and the other stimuli that aroused aggressive fantasies/affects. High-aggression Ss showed more cognitive sharpening when managing aggressive stimuli and more leveling with nonaggressive stimuli. A significant interaction with sex was also observed. Findings support the concept of cognitive–affective balance (i.e., the unique manner in which personalities coordinate and meet both the requirements of external stimuli/tasks and those of fantasies/affects). Results are discussed in terms of aggression as a personality characteristic and whether psychosexual identity and sex are syntonic. The concept of cognitive–affective balance is related to other models addressing the relationship between cognition and personality/emotions. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for activities: Adult age differences and intentionality.

24 17–24 yr olds and 24 56–76 yr olds were tested for memory of activities on a series of tasks (e.g., letter cancellation and anagrams) that varied along the rote–cognitive dimension. Half the Ss in each age group were forewarned of the subsequent memory test (intentional learning); the remaining Ss were not forewarned (incidental learning). An overall age difference, favoring young Ss, was found. However, the magnitude of the age difference varied across activities, being slight for cognitively demanding tasks and pronounced for less-demanding activities. Memory was unaffected by the forewarning variable for both age groups. Results are interpreted in terms of an age deficit in the retrieval of memory traces established by activities, with cognitively demanding activities yielding more distinctive and therefore more retrievable traces than less-demanding activities for older adults. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfert d'une stratégie de mémorisation chez des enfants de 10 ans: étude des différences individuelles.

Studied spontaneous or induced use of an organization strategy on free recall tasks by children differing with regard to perceptual field dependence–field independence (i.e., global vs analytic perceptual style). Human Ss: 72 normal male and female school-age children (mean age 10 yrs). In a 2 by 2 by 2 experimental design, Ss were divided into 8 groups according to gender, perceptual style (global vs analytic), and treatment (control vs experimental). The groups received a brief illustration of a semantic organization strategy designed to promote memorization of verbal material. Ss performed 3 successive and identical recall tasks followed by 2 different tasks requiring either a transfer of maintenance or a transfer of generalization. Intergroup differences in memorization strategies and recall performances were analyzed. Tests used: The Group Embedded Figures Test. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational determinants of social anxiety in clinic and nonclinic samples: Physiological and cognitive correlates.

Compared the level of physiological reactivity and frequency of negative cognitions in 26 nonclinic, socially anxious (SA) Ss (mean age 20.8 yrs), 17 clinic SA patients (mean age 40.8 yrs), and 26 nonsocially anxious (NSA) Ss (mean age 22.0 yrs) to investigate the consistency of cognitive and physiological reactivity in the assessment of social anxiety. A social interaction self-statement test served as the cognitive measure. Physiological reactivity was monitored continuously throughout Ss' completion of the following behavioral tasks: an unstructured interpersonal interaction with an opposite-sex confederate, a similar interaction with a same-sex confederate, and an impromptu talk on a topic selected by the S. The clinic and nonclinic samples of SA Ss differed significantly from the NSA Ss in level of physiological reactivity and type of cognition. There were no significant differences between the 2 anxious groups. The results indicate that both thoughts and physiological reactivity were influenced by situational parameters. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative and positive cognition in depressed and nondepressed chronic-pain patients.

Examined negative and positive automatic thoughts and attributional style in 60 men (aged 21–64 yrs) who were depressed chronic-low-back-pain (CLBP) patients, nondepressed CLBP patients, or healthy controls. Ss completed measures that included the Attribution Style Questionnaire and the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (S. D. Hollon and P. C. Kendall; see record 1981-20180-001). Depressed Ss exhibited significantly more negative automatic thoughts than nondepressed Ss and controls. Nondepressed Ss reported significantly more positive automatic thoughts than did depressed Ss and controls. No significant differences were found for attributional style. Different cognitive-behavioral interventions might be considered for depressed and nondepressed CLBP Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)