Sex differences in learned helplessness: I. Differential debilitation with peer and adult evaluators.

Predicted that sex differences in learned helplessness (attributions of failure to uncontrollable factors) and the impaired performance associated with it would be agent specific. Two experiments were conducted with 105 female and 111 male 4th and 5th graders. Among girls, failure feedback from adults led to little improvement in performance on a series of digit-letter substitution problems, but failure from peers led to immediate and sustained improvement. Among boys, however, failure feedback from adults led to rapid improvement, but failure from peers led to no improvement over trials. Moreover, girls' and boys' attributions for failure varied systematically with the agent of evaluation. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning what's taught: Sex differences in instruction.

Research indicates that boys perform better on mathematics tests and girls perform better on reading tests. An investigation of why boys' and girls' performance differs was made by coding 33 teacher interactions with 2nd grade students during reading and mathematics instruction. Teachers made more academic contacts with girls in reading and with boys in math; teachers spent relatively more cognitive time with girls in reading and boys in math; teachers made consistently more managerial contacts with boys than girls; and, although there were no differences in initial abilities, sex differences were found in end-of-year achievement in reading. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction.

Investigated the impacts of computer-assisted cooperative, competitive, and individualistic instruction on student achievement and attitudes. 71 8th graders were randomly assigned to conditions stratified for sex and ability. 24 Ss (13 boys and 11 girls) were assigned to the cooperative condition, 22 Ss (11 boys and 11 girls) to the competitive condition, and 25 Ss (14 boys and 11 girls) to the individualistic condition. In all conditions Ss completed the same computer-assisted instructional unit. Results indicate that computer-assisted cooperative instruction promotes greater quantity and quality of daily achievement; more successful problem solving; and higher performance on factual recognition, application, and problem-solving test items than does computer-assisted competitive or individualistic learning. The girls' attitudes, compared with the boys', were adversely affected within the competitive condition. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher–student interactions and their relationship to student achievement: A comparison of Mexican-American and Anglo-American children.

J. E. Brophy and T. L. Good's (1969) teacher–child dyadic interaction system was used to record 5 teachers' interactions with 40 Mexican-American (MA) and 59 Anglo-American (AA) 4th and 5th graders in 5 classrooms. 14 interaction variables were subjected to an Ethnicity?×?Sex?×?Classroom ANOVA. The correlation between these interaction variables and students' achievement was computed separately for MAs and AAs. Results show that AAs received more teacher affirmation following correct responses than MAs. Teacher affirmation was also significantly related to achievement for MAs but not AAs. Overall, teacher interaction variables showed a stronger relationship to achievement for MAs. A significant main effect of sex revealed that girls initiated more work-related contacts with teachers. There were no Ethnicity?×?Sex interactions. Findings indicate that even after controlling for potentially confounding variables, ethnicity still affects teacher–student interactions. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in toddlers' behavior and parental reaction.

Observed 12 families, each consisting of 1 toddler-aged child, a mother, and a father in their own homes. 6 children were boys, and 6 were girls. Boys played with blocks and manipulated objects significantly more than girls. Girls asked for help, played with dolls, danced, and dressed up significantly more than boys. Both parents gave girls more praise and more criticism than boys, and both parents joined boys' play more often than girls' play. However, boys were left to play alone more than girls. Comparisons between parents' answers on a child-rearing questionnaire were made with the home observations. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributions of ability and motivation in a natural setting.

Examined the effects of different patterns of student performance on teachers' attributions of ability and motivation in a school setting. 415 6–8th graders and 17 teachers served as Ss. Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test scores and grades affected attributions of ability and motivation in an additive fashion. In contrast to F. Heider's (see PA, Vol 33:971) proposition, attributions of ability and motivation had a positive relationship when performance was controlled. Teachers had greater confidence in their attributions when performances were extreme, particularly in a positive direction. Although consistency in performance between test scores and grades did not affect their confidence, teachers were more confident when students' grades were consistent with the teachers' perceptions of the children's ability. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions for school-related problems: Teacher perceptions and teacher feedback.

Conducted 2 studies with a total of 54 teachers to examine classroom teachers' attributions for severe school problems. In both studies, teachers who had referred a student for psychological services were asked to assign causality for the referral problem. In Exp II, teacher praise and criticism of referred students were examined as functions of causal attributions. Both studies show that teachers held student factors more responsible for classroom problems than teacher factors and that teachers' attributions varied somewhat for learning vs behavior problems. Exp II indicated that problem students perceived as lacking motivation were criticized more often by their teachers. Relationship of the results to attribution theory and teacher attribution research is discussed, and further research conducted in naturalistic settings is recommended. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student perceptions of differential teacher treatment in open and traditional classrooms.

234 4th–6th graders from 8 open and 8 traditional classrooms completed the Teacher Treatment Inventory, rating the frequency with which 44 teacher behaviors were accorded 1 of 4 hypothetical target students. Nominations by principals and teacher self-ratings on the Walberg-Thomas Open Education Teacher Questionnaire were used to operationally define classroom structure. Ss described low achievers (LAs) as the recipients of more negative feedback, teacher direction, schoolwork, and rule orientation than high achievers (HAs). HAs were perceived as receiving higher expectations and more opportunity and choice than LAs. These treatment differences were perceived regardless of sex of student rated. The hypothesis that Ss in open classrooms would perceive less differential treatment of HAs and LAs than Ss in traditional classrooms was not supported. Although unrelated to the open or traditional orientation of teachers, classrooms did differ in the extent of differential treatment perceived by Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparing efficacies of neurocognitive treatment and homework assistance programs for children with learning difficulties

An experimental study of the effects of a didactic teaching approach and a constructivist teaching approach on 3rd- and 5th-grade boys' and girls' performance on arithmetic computation problems was conducted. Two groups of children, matched on the basis of initial computation performance as well as grade and gender, were taught how to solve arithmetic problems using one of these two instructional approaches. Analysis of subsequent computation test performance revealed that 5th graders scored higher than 3rd graders, and there was a significant interaction between gender and instruction group. After instruction, girls in the didactic group outperformed boys in both instruction groups and girls who had been taught using constructivist approaches. Gender differences in computation performance can appear relatively early, by 3rd grade, if didactic instruction strategies are used to teach computational rules. The pattern of gender differences suggests that didactic teaching does not handicap boys. Rather, it appears that didactic instruction enhances computational performance in girls.     

Sex-appropriate toy preference and the ability to conceptualize toys as sex-role related.

In a study with 60 2-, 4-, and 6-yr-old boys and girls, girls showed increases in sex-appropriate preferences and correct identification with age. Boys' ability to identify toys as boys' or girls' also improved with age; however, their sex-appropriate toy preferences were consistently strong at all ages. In a 2nd study with 20 3-yr-old girls, Ss demonstrated sex-appropriate preferences only when first asked to identify toys as boys' or girls'. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between types of aggression and sociometric status: Peer and teacher perceptions.

Examined the relation between aggressive behavior and sociometric status (the extent to which a child is liked by his or her peers) in third and fourth graders. 47 boys and 51 girls from a northern New England elementary school were given a group-administered peer rating of social status and a peer nomination measure assessing five types of aggressive behavior. Teachers of the same children were given modified versions of these measures. Significant negative correlations were found between social status and all categories of aggressive behavior for both sexes except provoked physical aggression in boys for which the correlation was not significant. Indirect aggression (tattling, stealing, or breaking others' property) was the type of aggressive behavior that correlated most highly with low peer ratings. There were significant differences between boys and girls on all five categories of aggressive behavior. Teachers' ratings of peer social status correlated more highly with boys' ratings than with girls' ratings, and teacher perceptions of aggressive behavior correlated significantly and positively with peers' ratings on only two categories, unprovoked physical aggression and indirect aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and locus of control as determinants of children's responses to peer versus adult praise.

Gave 80 Black 1st graders varying in internal–external control (as identified by scores on the Stanford Preschool Internal–External Scale) a series of digit substitution problems during which their performance was praised by either a Black boy and girl or a Black man and woman ostensibly watching them from another room. Agents' feedback was previously videotaped. As predicted, boys were most responsive to peer feedback and girls were most responsive to adult feedback, as revealed by faster problem-solving rates on reinforced tasks, higher scores on a related substitution task, and greater attributions of agent helpfulness. Predictions involving locus of control received only modest support. The relationship of these results to earlier studies involving dissimilar populations is discussed and educational implications are drawn. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in learned helplessness: IV. An experimental and naturalistic study of failure generalization and its mediators.

Tested the hypothesis that attributions for failure can mediate the generalization of failure effects across situations: When perceived causal factors remain present in otherwise novel situations, failure effects should transfer; when perceived causal factors are removed, failure effects should be attenuated. Specifically, it was predicted that sex differences in attributions would result in differential transfer to novel situations, with boys showing greater recovery of success expectancies when the evaluator changes, but girls showing greater recovery of success when the ability areas change. Two studies are reported: one a field study (40 female and 40 male 5th graders) examining changes in expectancy of academic success over the school year, and the other a laboratory analog (171 female and 143 male 4th–6th graders) examining directly the effects of evaluator and task change. Results provide strong support for the hypothesis and suggest an explanation for sex differences in long-term academic achievement. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-serving effect (bias?) in academic attributions: Its relation to academic achievement and self-concept.

Related the size of the self-serving effect (SSE), the tendency to accept responsibility for one's successes but not one's failures, for academic self-attributions to other academic constructs in 3 studies, 2 with 5th graders (226 and 559 Ss) and 1 with 122 9th graders. Ss completed an attribution scale and a self-concept measure, and reading achievement was assessed for 5th graders. Results from the 3 studies demonstrate that the size of the SSE was larger for (a) attributions to ability and effort than those to external causes, (b) more able students, (c) students with higher academic self-concepts, (d) students inferred to have higher academic self-concepts by teachers and by peers, and, perhaps, (e) younger students. SSEs for outcomes in mathematics and reading, particularly for attributions to ability, were content specific. The content specificity of the SSE and this logical pattern of relations among the SSEs and other variables suggest that academic achievement and academic self-concept are nonmotivational influences on the SSE. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational and gender differences: Sixth-grade students' mathematical problem-solving behavior.

Differences in boys' and girls' mathematical problem-solving behavior were studied in relation to 2 types of mathematics tasks: computations and applications. Participants were 79 boys and 79 girls of the 6th grade from 12 regular schools. In 2 separate individual sessions, cognitive and motivational variables were examined before, during, and after task execution. Differences in mathematical problem-solving behavior were dependent on the contents of the mathematics tasks and on gender. Interactions between type of task and gender were also noted. With respect to applied problem solving, girls rated themselves lower on confidence than boys and attributed bad results more often to lack of capacity and to the difficulty of the task. No gender differences were observed in relation to computations. Unexpectedly, girls had higher persistence than did boys, but only during applied problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classroom experience and children's self-perceptions of ability, effort, and conduct.

Investigated the relation of classroom experience to children's self-perceptions of ability, effort, and conduct in an observational study of 85 2nd and 6th graders. Data were collected on Ss' achievement level; self-perceptions; and their academic, conduct, and personal interactions with teachers and peers. Regression analyses revealed that work praise heightened ability and effort self-perceptions but that work criticism only had a detrimental effect on effort self-perceptions. Although conduct feedback proved unrelated to ability and effort self-perceptions, conduct criticism lowered conduct self-perceptions. Self-perceptions were only slightly influenced by teacher behaviors, such as monitoring or providing assistance, peer interactions, and degree of Ss' task orientation or misbehavior. There were few age or gender differences in the pattern of results. Findings suggest that children distinguish among different types of feedback and highlight the differential effects of feedback on achievement-related self-perceptions in laboratory and classroom settings. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking, body image and dieting habits among adolescents. A 3-year follow-up of adolescents aged 15-18 years

Several studies indicate that the differences in smoking habits which have hitherto prevailed between the sexes are decreasing, partly because of the increase in smoking among young Norwegian women. It has been suggested that concern about body image and weight gain is of particular relevance to women taking up smoking. In this article we present findings from a cohort study among 646 adolescents between the ages of 15 and 18 years. The results indicate that boys start smoking later than girls, and that concern about weight gain, body image and dieting plays a more important role in girls' than in boys' smoking habits at the age of 15. These factors are unrelated to boys' smoking habits at the age of 18, whereas they contribute significantly in predicting girls' smoking habits three years later. Furthermore, the results show that among girls, those who smoke are more concerned about gaining weight. Our findings emphasize the importance of implementing smoking prevention programmes at different age levels, using different motivating factors for boys and girls.     

Development course of parental stimulation and its relationship to mastery motivation during infancy.

As part of a longitudinal study on the environmental origins of mastery motivation, 68 infants were observed at home with each parent separately and their motivational characteristics were assessed in a laboratory setting at ages 6 and 12 mo. Differential relationships between 2 aspects of parental stimulation and the infants' mastery motivation were found. At 6 mo, parental sensory stimulation was found to be associated with boys' and girls' persistence at problem solving. Mothers' sensory stimulation and attention focusing was related to a broader range of mastery motivational behaviors for boys than for girls. At 12 mo, the significant relationships were confined to the boys' persistence at practicing sensorimotor skills, with the father being the major contributor. Results suggest that the associations between the animate environment and infant behavior are a function of the child's age, sex, type of stimulation, and parental sex. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking, body image and reducing diet. A three-year follow-up of adolescents aged 15-18 years

Several studies indicate that the differences in smoking habits which have hitherto prevailed between the sexes are decreasing, partly because of the increase in smoking among young Norwegian women. It has been suggested that concern about body image and weight gain is of particular relevance to women taking up smoking. In this article we present findings from a cohort study among 646 adolescents between the ages of 15 and 18 years. The results indicate that boys start smoking later than girls, and that concern about weight gain, body image and dieting plays a more important role in girls' than in boys' smoking habits at the age of 15. These factors are unrelated to boys' smoking habits at the age of 18, whereas they contribute significantly in predicting girls' smoking habits three years later. Furthermore, the results show that among girls, those who smoke are more concerned about gaining weight. Our findings emphasize the importance of implementing smoking prevention programmes at different age levels, using different motivating factors for boys and girls.     

Comparing teacher and peer perceptions of aggression: An ecological approach.

Teacher and peer perceptions of aggression were investigated in a sample of 899 students. Teachers rated their students in Grades 3–8 on an 8-item scale assessing peer-directed aggression. Students completed a questionnaire within classrooms that measured acceptance, rejection, and peer-directed aggression. Both teachers and peers reported higher levels of aggression in boys than in girls. Teacher and peer perceptions of aggressive behavior were more congruent for boys than for girls, but this congruence differed significantly as a function of ethnicity. Significant differences among individual classrooms also existed in both teacher and peer ratings, as well as in the relationships between the 2 measures. Findings of gender, grade level, ethnic, and classroom differences are compared with previous research, and issues relevant to the identification of highly aggressive youth are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)