The role of regulatory mechanisms for control of plant diseases and food security—case studies from potato production in Britain

Being aware of the potentially devastating impacts of plant diseases on food security, governments have designed and employ plant health legislation to prevent or inhibit the worst impacts. The development of such policies in Britain, and latterly in Europe, can be closely linked to disease events that have occurred in the potato sector. We analyse early and current examples of policies governing potato diseases in Britain to identify the decision processes leading to the implementation of such phytosanitary policies and how they have evolved over time and in response to different disease threats. Reasons for developing and implementing phytosanitary policies include the desire to prevent pathogens being introduced (entering and establishing in a new area), the protection of export markets, and the lack of effective control measures. Circumstances in which regulatory policies would not be appropriate could include situations where a disease is already widely distributed, unacceptable costs, lack of exclusion measures, or difficulties of disease diagnosis. We conclude that in general, government policies have worked well in protecting British potato growing over the last one hundred years, despite of the failures of some of the policies discussed here. They have also contributed much to the development of plant health policies for other crops. Voluntary grower initiatives are a new mechanism complementing existing formal policies with an additional level of security that allows individual growers to take on additional responsibility rather than relying entirely on government legislation.     

Does consumption of tobacco and alcohol affect household food security? Evidence from rural India

Using a nationally representative household-level dataset on consumption expenditure, this paper examines the crowding-out effects of tobacco and alcohol spending on food and non-food consumption in rural India. We found a positive relationship between spending on these temptation goods and household income, but in proportionate terms the poor and socially-disadvantaged households spent more on such goods compared to others. In general, their consumption crowded out food expenditure but not as much as non-food expenditure. Tobacco expenditure crowded out more of consumer durables followed by foodgrains, healthcare and education. However, among the poor, foodgrains were traded-off more. Likewise, spending on alcohol also crowded out foodgrains, but the effects were larger for consumer durables and starker among the poor. Across social groups too, consumption of tobacco as well as alcohol led to a reallocation of budgets with consumer durables being most displaced followed by foodgrains. On the whole, the crowding out effects were larger for tobacco than alcohol and were greater for households belonging to the lower rungs of both income and social order. We identified that such crowding-out effects operated through peer effects or social interactions; hence the key inference is that government interventions aimed towards controlling tobacco or alcohol consumption would be more effective if these targeted peer groups and their group leaders.     

Extreme weather,food security and the capacity to adapt – the case of crops in China

Three extreme weather scenarios are examined for agriculture in China in this study. One scenario assumes a year when every province has precipitation corresponding to the lowest level experienced in the province over the last three decades. Another scenario assumes the highest experienced precipitation for every province is happening; and the last one assumes that the most harmful level of precipitation on crops occurs for every province – whether too little or too much. We studied the role of autonomous adaptation by farmers and through markets as embodied in a computable general equilibrium model. The results show that observed extreme impacts of precipitation on crop harvests are not serious for China at national level. The maize harvest is the most negatively affected with a reduction of 4 % without adaptation and less than 1 % reduction with adaptation. However, the impacts within a province may be serious and even become worse with adaptation. Good harvests might not make farmers better off due to lower crop prices even though consumers benefit. Sensitivity analysis shows that the ability to adapt assumed in the analysis may not be present in the short term.     

Biosecurity and food security—effective mechanisms for public-private partnerships

Maintaining Australia’s status as a major food exporter requires ongoing protection of its cropping industries from exotic pests and diseases. The number of pests classified as high priority threats to Australia’s plant industries now stands at over 300 (Plant Health Australia Annual Report 2014). It is often stated that Australia’s geographic isolation provides a natural barrier from many exotic pests that could damage plant production industries and the unique natural environment. Isolation, however, is not enough given that pests can enter through natural means or by being brought into the country with the increasing movements of people and goods. In an increasingly globalised world economy, Australia relies on a rigorous biosecurity system operated in partnership between governments and industry to mitigate risks from exotic pests. Steadily increasing trade volumes and passenger travel, global movements of serious pests, particularly into neighbouring countries, and the emergence of new and variant species of pests, will continue to test already stretched biosecurity capabilities. Plant Health Australia (PHA) provides the centrepiece of a unique system that manages the national preparedness and response for exotic plant pest incursions in Australia. PHA is a public company that facilitates decision making and funding for effective responses to emergency plant pests. PHA also independently advocates and adds value to, Australia’s national biosecurity system. Utilising the Emergency Plant Pest Response Deed (EPPRD), a legal agreement that brings together governments and industries in formal response arrangements, PHA ensures that national incursion responses are timely, science based, transparent and effective, with the aim of maintaining supply of quality clean food.     

Global food security – Issues,challenges and technological solutions

BackgroundFood security is both a complex and challenging issue to resolve as it cannot be characterized or limited by geography nor defined by a single grouping, i.e., demography, education, geographic location or income. Currently, approximately one billion people (16% of global population) suffer from chronic hunger in a time when there is more than enough food to feed everyone on the planet. Therein lies the Food security challenge to implement an ability to deal with increasing food shortages, caused by a combination of waste and an ever expanding world population. At current levels prediction state that we must increase global food production by 70% on already over exploited finite infrastructures before 2050.Scope and approachThis review paper firstly introduces the concept of Food Security with an overview of its scale and depth in the context of the global food industry. It then highlights the main sources. The readership is then introduced to the key factors affecting food security and highlights the many national and international measures adopted to tackle the problem at both policy and technological level.Key findings and conclusionsFood experts indicate that no one single solution will provide a sustainable food security solution into the future. Collective stakeholder engagement will prove essential in bringing about the policy changes and investment reforms required to achieve a solution. Achieving truly sustainable global food security will require a holistic systems-based approach, built on a combination of policy and technological reform, which will utilize existing systems combined with state-of-the-art technologies, techniques and best practices some of which are outlined herein.     

How disaggregated should information be for a sound food security policy?

This study aimed to answer the question whether disaggregating micro data on food security conditions yielded sufficient new information to improve food security policies. To answer this question, we proposed and implemented a conceptual model that comprised three successive levels of disaggregation. The model was implemented for the Punjab province of Pakistan for which primary data was collected from 1,152 rural households. To measure the food security status of households, the Dietary Intake Assessment (DIA) method was used. Furthermore, the determinants of food security were identified using a Logit Regression model. Comparing the results of this model suggested that disaggregation yields sufficient new information to warrant the extra effort. We found that food security of different household categories and micro-regions were statistically different from each other; moreover, household categories differed in their food security status even within regions. Basing potential policies on analysis of too aggregated data a level can lead to biased conclusions. An implication is that a blanket policy for ensuring rural household food security, as currently implemented in Pakistan, is not an efficient approach.     

Chinese consumers’ understanding and use of a food nutrition label and their determinants

This paper investigated Chinese consumers’ understanding and use of the Chinese food nutrition label and their determinants. Quantitative data were collected during March 2012 through a self-administrated structured questionnaire conducted in Beijing (n = 213) and Baoding city (n = 447). Questions assessed Chinese consumers’ use and understanding (objective and subjective) of food nutrition labels, nutrition knowledge (objective and subjective), socio-demographic characteristics, diet status, diet-health awareness, body mass index (BMI) and familiarity with food nutrition labels. A moderate degree of subjective understanding and a low degree of objective understanding of food nutrition labels were found among the participants, and 70% of the participants claimed to rarely or never use nutrition labels when shopping for food. Nutrition knowledge (objective and subjective) positively affected participants’ understanding (objective and subjective) of food nutrition labels. Familiarity with food nutrition labels had a strong positive effect on understanding of and use of food nutrition labels. Subjective nutrition knowledge and subjective understanding also played a significant and positive role in Chinese consumers’ label use. Age yielded a negative effect on both subjective and objective understanding, while education only affected participants’ objective understanding. None of the socio-demographic characteristics associated with self-reported use. Implications for future policies to improve Chinese consumers’ understanding and promote their use of food nutrition labels are discussed.     

The future role of agriculture in the Arab region’s food security

The 2007–2008 food crisis and subsequent economic recession have severely undermined food security and agricultural sustainability worldwide. Failures in market functioning and trade openness have posed particularly high risks to the import-dependent countries in the Arab region. Many of the global causes of the price spikes are still in place, creating uncertainty about food availability and access in the future. Especially in the Arab region, these uncertainties are compounded by water scarcity. A long-term outlook is essential for formulating appropriate policy and investment strategies in order to ensure future food security for the region. After a brief discussion of trends in agricultural growth and investment, this paper presents projections by the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) on agriculture production, trade, demand, prices, and food security up to 2025 and 2050. Simulations are used to compare a baseline scenario (with climate change) with two scenarios incorporating increased investment and supportive policies. The results highlight the key role of agricultural research, as well as expanded irrigation, improved natural resource management, and enhanced market efficiency, in improving food security. Four priority areas are proposed: investments in agricultural research and development, rural infrastructure, and rural institutions; more open regional and international trade to facilitate commodity flows and alleviate supply shortages; pro-poor food and nutrition interventions; and cross-cutting issues of policy coherence, gender dimensions, inclusion of traditional populations, and coordination mechanisms to deal with climate change and ecosystem challenges.     

Migration of photoinitiators from cardboard into dry food: evaluation of Tenax® as a food simulant

Photoinitiators are widely used to cure ink on packaging materials used in food applications such as cardboards for the packaging of dry foods. Conventional migration testing for long-term storage at ambient temperature with Tenax^® was applied to paperboard for the following photoinitiators: benzophenone (BP), 4,4?-bis(diethylamino)benzophenone (DEAB), 2-chloro-9H-thioxanthen-9-one (CTX), 1-chloro-4-propoxy-9H-thioxanthen-9-one (CPTX), 4-(dimethylamino)benzophenone (DMBP), 2-ethylanthraquinone (EA), 2-ethylhexyl-4-dimethylaminobenzoate (EDB), ethyl-4-dimethylaminobenzoate (EDMAB), 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4-HBP), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (HMBP), 2-hydroxy-4?-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-2-methylpropiophenone (HMMP), 2-isopropyl-9H-thioxanthen-9-one (ITX), 4-methylbenzophenone (MBP) and Michler’s ketone (MK). Test conditions (10 days at 60°C) were according to Regulation (EU) No. 10/2011 and showed different migration patterns for the different photoinitiators. The results were compared with the migration in cereals after a storage of 6 months at room temperature. The simulation with Tenax at 60°C overestimated actual migration in cereals up to a maximum of 92%. In addition, the effect of a lower contact temperature and the impact of the Tenax pore size were investigated. Analogous simulation performed with rice instead of Tenax resulted in insufficiently low migration rates, showing Tenax is a much stronger adsorbent than rice and cereals.     

Cannabis-infused food and Canadian consumers’ willingness to consider “recreational” cannabis as a food ingredient

At the time of this study, the Canadian government intends to legalize the use of recreational cannabis. Despite its intentions, the regulatory framework remains ambiguous. Food businesses, with their constant search for growth, are considering launching several food products with cannabis as an ingredient, once the drug is legalized. This study does not look at the health effects of cannabis per se, but rather consumers’ perception of cannabis as a food ingredient through the lens of food innovation, if it were to be legalized. It explores several dimensions, including cannabis-infused food products sold in grocery stores and dishes served at restaurants. It evaluates potential times when consumers would consume these products, in addition to their preferred food products. The survey also looks at perceived risks related to specific demographics such as children and pregnant women. The survey assesses both perceived risks and anticipated behaviour in a market in which a former illicit product becomes readily available.The results show that Canadians, although mostly favourable to cannabis's legalization and willing to try cannabis-infused food products, are concerned about health risks the drug represents, especially for young children. Results also suggest that most Canadians do not feel knowledgeable enough to cook with cannabis at home, which opens an opportunity for leaders in the industry. Finally, the study presents limitations and suggested future paths for research.     

Can we improve global food security? A socio-economic and political perspective

Ensuring global food security for a growing population remains a major challenge. This is especially true against the background of increasing food prices paired with growing income levels and changing demand patterns in the developing world. At the same time, climate change and the occurrence of more frequent and extreme natural disasters increase the vulnerability of rural farm households, negatively affecting agricultural production. Given the many dimensions of food security, no simple solution can be found. Promoting productivity of farming and increasing the efficiency of the food marketing system are effective measures contributing to rural development in developing countries. Policy reforms in agriculture and beyond help to reduce distortions and change consumers’ awareness with respect to food waste and resource use inefficiencies related to human diets. What is new in this context is the increasing link of agriculture with other sectors such as the energy and the financial markets. This calls for further research as additional pressure is being put on the global food system.     

Is resilience a useful concept in the context of food security and nutrition programmes? Some conceptual and practical considerations

With the developing world increasingly exposed to severe shocks and stresses, a growing number of international development agencies have now adopted resilience building as a critical long-term objective for their programmes. This paper explores the potential for this concept in the context of food security and nutrition but the reflection extends to development interventions more generally. Resilience is a rich concept, and has at its core the notion of complex dynamic processes that aptly describes the nature and dynamics of vulnerability and changes as they affect the developing world. The paper argues that the main value of resilience lies in its integrative nature, which facilitates greater collaboration between traditionally disparate groups and communities of practices. The paper also stresses some of the key conceptual and practical challenges that we face when trying to operationalise and measure resilience.     

Crops that feed the world 4. Barley: a resilient crop? Strengths and weaknesses in the context of food security

Barley is cultivated both in highly productive agricultural systems and also in marginal and subsistence environments. Its distribution is worldwide and is of considerable economic importance for animal feed and alcohol production. The overall importance of barley as a human food is minor but there is much potential for new uses exploiting the health benefits of whole grain and beta-glucans. The barley supply chains are complex and show added value at many stages. Germplasm resources for barley are considerable, with much potential for exploitation of its biodiversity available through the use of recently developed genomic and breeding tools. Consequently, substantial gains in crucial sustainability characteristics should be achievable in the future, together with increased understanding of the physiological basis of many agronomic traits, particularly water and nutrient use efficiency. Barley’s ability to adapt to multiple biotic and abiotic stresses will be crucial to its future exploitation and increased emphasis on these traits in elite germplasm is needed to equip the crop for environmental change. Similarly, resource use efficiency should become a higher priority to ensure the crop’s sustainability in the long-term. Clearly barley is a resilient crop with much potential which can be realised in the future.