Decentralized load frequency controller for a multi-area interconnected power system

This paper proposes a control scheme for the load frequency control (LFC) problem of multi-area power systems. These systems are treated as interconnected dynamical systems. In the design of the proposed controller, each local area network is overlapped with states representing the interconnections with the other local area networks in the global system. Then, a decentralized control scheme is developed as function of the local area state variables and those resulting from the overlapped states which represent an approximation of the interconnection variables. The proposed controller guarantees the asymptotic stability of the overall closed loop system.The simulation results indicate that the proposed control scheme works well. In addition, they show that the controlled system is robust to changes in the parameters of the power system and to bounded input disturbances acting on the system. Moreover, the simulation results show that the controlled system behaves well even when there is a maximum limit on the rate of change in power generation.     

基于VSC-HVDC的多区互联电力系统负荷频率控制策略

针对传统的交流输电系统在功率传输方面存在的诸多弊端,提出一种应用电压源换流器-高压直流（VSC-HVDC）互联传输线路减小多区互联电力系统间频率振荡的方案.首先在VSC-HVDC的基础上提出系统模型,然后在此基础上确认对互联系统发生随机负荷扰动时的控制策略,提高频率控制的效率,增强互联系统的稳定性.仿真结果表明,相比于仅应用交流传输线路的情况,该控制方案对联络线的功率振荡具有良好的阻尼性能.     

Bacteria foraging optimization algorithm based load frequency controller for interconnected power system

Social foraging behavior of Escherichia coli bacteria has recently been explored to develop a novel algorithm for distributed optimization and control. The Bacterial Foraging Optimization Algorithm (BFOA), as it is called now, is currently gaining popularity in the community of researchers, for its effectiveness in solving certain difficult real world optimization problems. This paper proposes BFOA based Load Frequency Control (LFC) for the suppression of oscillations in power system. A two area non-reheat thermal system is considered to be equipped with proportional plus integral (PI) controllers. BFOA is employed to search for optimal controller parameters by minimizing the time domain objective function. The performance of the proposed controller has been evaluated with the performance of the conventional PI controller and PI controller tuned by genetic algorithm (GA) in order to demonstrate the superior efficiency of the proposed BFOA in tuning PI controller. Simulation results emphasis on the better performance of the optimized PI controller based on BFOA in compare to optimized PI controller based on GA and conventional one over wide range of operating conditions, and system parameters variations.     

Impact of energy storage system on load frequency control for diverse sources of interconnected power system in deregulated power environment

This paper focuses Load Frequency Control (LFC) mechanism for multi-generating two areas interconnected power systems with energy storage system in a deregulated power environment. The two areas, demarcated as Area-I and Area-II, consist of thermal, hydro and gas power units. This paper also incorporates the economic load dispatch mechanism into the LFC for economical division of load during load deviation. Small signal stability analysis through participating factor has also been done to determine the oscillation state of the system, i.e., frequency deviation in both areas. Therefore, proper controller is required to reduce the oscillation of the system. The optimum value of the integral gain of the integral controller has to be selected to achieve the goal. Hence, Opposition-based Harmonic Search (OHS) technique is used for the optimization purpose. During major disturbance in the areas, primary and secondary controllers are not sufficient to reduce the frequency and tie-line power oscillation due to slow response of the governor mechanism. Therefore, energy storage system, i.e., Redox Flow Battery (RFB), is used for improvement of the dynamic response of the system which has very small time constant and quick response. The proposed control mechanism has been analyzed in a deregulated power environment with the help of different simulation case studies to find out improved dynamic performance over integral control strategies.     

Robust analysis and design of load frequency controller for power systems

Robust load frequency control for power systems is discussed. A detailed robustness analysis of the existing control laws shows that parameter variation is not a critical issue but more attention should be paid to the unmodeled dynamics in robust load frequency controller design. A new robust load frequency control method is then proposed considering the unmodeled dynamics of power systems. Finally, a new configuration is proposed to overcome the effects of generation rate constraints (GRC). Simulation results show that the design method and the anti-GRC configuration are effective.     

Cuckoo Search algorithm based load frequency controller design for nonlinear interconnected power system

A new optimization technique called Cuckoo Search (CS) algorithm for optimum tuning of PI controllers for Load Frequency Control (LFC) is suggested in this paper. A time domain based-objective function is established to robustly tune the parameters of PI-based LFC which is solved by the CS algorithm to attain the most optimistic results. A three-area interconnected system is investigated as a test system under various loading conditions where system nonlinearities are taken into account to confirm the effectiveness of the suggested algorithm. Simulation results are introduced to show the enhanced performance of the developed CS based controllers in comparison with Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and conventional integral controller. These results denote that the proposed controllers offer better performance over others in terms of settling times and various indices.     

A method for load frequency control using battery in power system with highly penetrated photovoltaic generation

It is generally believed that large battery systems will be needed to store surplus electric energy due to the high penetration of renewable energy (RE) such as photovoltaic generation (PV). Since the main objective of high penetration of RE is to reduce CO₂ emissions, reducing kWh output of thermal generation that emits large amounts of CO₂ in power systems should be sufficiently considered. However, thermal generation plays an important role in load frequency control (LFC) of power systems. Therefore, if LFC could be performed with batteries and hydropower generation, the kWh output of thermal generation could be reduced significantly. This paper presents a method of LFC using batteries in a power system with highly penetrated PVs. An assessment of the effect of the proposed method considering mutual smoothing effect of highly penetrated PVs is made. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 184(4): 22–31, 2013; Published online in Wiley Online Library ( wileyonlinelibrary.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.22425     

网络等值与互联电网潮流分析

基于互联电网解合环潮流分析的现实需求。开发了一个应用软件。它采用潮流网络等值算法进行电网解合环分析。介绍了该算法的基本思路。并以实际算例阐明其计算精度高。具有普遍应用意义。在等值模式的选择中,通过分析端口模式和局部网络模式的优缺点。认为在可获得较多主网数据的情况下应优先采用局部网络模式。同时还指出。在软件的实现中应注意操作界面的图形化、数据对接的自动化和数据传送的信息化等问题。     

Robust decentralized load frequency control of interconnected power system with Generation Rate Constraint using Type-2 fuzzy approach

The Load Frequency Control (LFC) problem has been a major subject in electrical power system design/operation. LFC is becoming more significant recently with increasing size, changing structure and complexity in interconnected power systems. In practice LFC systems use simple Proportional Integral (PI) controllers. As the PI control parameters are usually tuned, based on classical approaches. Moreover, they have fixed gains; hence are incapable of obtaining good dynamic performance for a wide range of operating conditions and various load changes, in multi-area power system. Literature shows that fuzzy logic controller, one of the most useful approaches, for utilizing expert knowledge, is adaptive in nature and is applied successfully for power system stabilization control. This paper proposes a Type-2 (T2) fuzzy approach for load frequency control of two-area interconnected reheat thermal power system with the consideration of Generation Rate Constraint (GRC). The performance of the Type-2 (T2) controller is compared with conventional controller and Type-1 (T1) fuzzy controller with regard to Generation Rate Constraint (GRC). The system parametric uncertainties are verified by changing parameters by 40% simultaneously from their typical values.     

Optimal variable structure controller for the load-frequency control of interconnected hydrothermal power systems

A new approach is presented for the load-frequency control of interconnected power systems using the theory of variable-structure systems and linear optimal control theory. A systematic procedure for the selection of the switching hyperplane, which is of vital importance in the design of variable-structure controllers, is developed by minimizing a performance index in the sliding mode operation. The proposed control scheme is illustrated by digital simulation of an interconnected power system consisting of a hydro power plant and a steam power plant.     

Decentralized load frequency based on H∞ control

This paper presents a decentralized load frequency control (LFC) based on H_∞ optimal control theory with an observer. A few LFC schemes have been proposed based on the optimal control theory, but they have not considered the change of system parameters in operation and the characteristics of load disturbances in a target system. In this paper, H_∞ robust control is introduced to address such problems. Owing to its practical merit, the proposed control scheme is a decentralized LFC. Employing observer theory, the proposed method requires only frequency and tie‐line power deviation in each area. Numerical simulations are shown to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. H_∞ control was proven to show greater effectiveness of damping disturbance over the conventional optimal control by the design of control systems aimed at restricting the H_∞ norm of its transfer function. In particular, when a decentralized LFC is applied, by reducing the system size, H_∞ norm is easier to dampen; thus H_∞ control is more effective in the decentralized control. Future research topics include the design of H_∞ control system with a weight on frequency response. © 2001 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 136(3): 28–38, 2001     

发电机组参与电网一次调频的特性研究

一次调频是确保电力系统频率稳定的主要途径之一,但目前采用DEH(数字式电液)控制系统的发电机组,通过调节系统设置较大的调频死区,切除一次调频的控制作用,大大降低了一次调频在突发性事故中稳定电网频率的作用。为研究发电机组参与电网一次调频的特性,建立了3区域互联系统的数学模型,并通过仿真试验,分析研究了不同的调频死区参数设置条件下,电网稳定所需要的一次调频容量,确定电网负荷扰动大小与机组调频容量之间的关系,对于指导电网中发电机组调节系统的参数设置和调整以及电网一次调频容量的确定具有重要的指导意义。     

Fast evaluation of dynamic changes of electric power systems frequency during primary control

The paper presents the development of a simple method for the fast and sufficiently accurate assessment of dynamic changes of power systems frequency during the time period of primary control. Also, this model gives corresponding values of the total mechanical power of synchronous generators, during the some period. The development of a proposed low-order system frequency response model is based on the main assumption of uniform movement of generators, which enables representation of the power system through an equivalent controlled synchronous machine. The characteristics of the developed method were determined on an example of a real electric power system and a comparison was made with the results of a stricter approach.     

A design method of adaptive load frequency control with dual-rate sampling

An adaptive control strategy for load frequency control, the purpose of which is to reduce the transient errors in the frequency and scheduled tie-line power deviations and to ensure zero steady state errors of these two quantities, is described. A dual-rate sampling self-tuning regulator whereby data sampling and control output are performed at different rates is designed for interconnected power systems with unknown deterministic load disturbances. the proposed control scheme is applied to a two-area power system provided with reheat thermal turbines and the control effects of the regulator are examined using digital simulation.     

电力市场下的互联系统自动发电控制改进模式

自动发电控制（AGC）作为能量管理系统（EMS）中最重要的控制功能之一,能有效地提高电网互联系统频率质量,提高经济效益和管理水平。但随着我国电力系统市场化体制改革的不断深入和完善,互联系统原先以联络线和频率偏差控制（TBC）模式为主的频率控制方式就成了电力市场环境下互联系统区域间交易的壁垒。为了适应现代电力市场环境的要求,提出一种新的以TBC为基础、满足二次辅助服务市场开放要求的区域间AGC改进模式。     

Optimization and coordination of wide-area damping controls for enhancing the transfer capability of interconnected power systems

This paper proposes systematic procedures to design wide-area damping controls (WADCs) in large interconnected power systems. An efficient model reduction method is first introduced, based on the pseudo-random binary signal (PRBS) probing technique and the prediction error identification algorithm (PEM). Then, the comprehensive controllability concept, as well as its calculating method, is proposed for properly locating the supplementary damping controllers. Further, an improved modal performance index is adopted as the measure of the stabilizing effect. With various constraints taken into account to meet practical engineering requirements, finally, the optimized and coordinated tuning of WADC parameters under various operation scenarios is achieved by a constrained nonlinear programming algorithm. The proposed approach has been tested on a practical 437-machine, 2791-node interconnected power system and the simulation results have demonstrated its high effectiveness in damping inter-area oscillations and enhancing across-region transfer capabilities.     

大区互联系统稳定计算中负荷模型研究

针对我国大区电网互联后稳定计算中出现的新情况，通过采用不同负荷模型对我国3个大区互联系统重要输电断面稳定极限的计算比较，详细分析稳定计算中马达挂在不同电压等级、配电网不同模拟方法对马达特性及稳定计算结果的影响，指出我国有些网调长期采用的马达模型存在定子漏抗过大的问题，建议现阶段采用IEEE-6马达模型，或者采用国内提出并计算出的稳定特性和稳定水平与之比较接近的研究马达模型或综稳Ⅲ型马达模型。     

超临界火电机组负荷G频率控制仿真

为了反映、评估、改善当前国内超临界火电机组在不同负荷下参与电网调频的能力,根据集总参数法建立了超临界火电机组不同负荷下的数学模型,得到了超临界火电机组变负荷时的主要参数变化规律。据此,建立了适应超临界火电机组的控制系统模型,利用 Matlab 软件的Simulink组件进行了超临界火电机组在不同负荷下参与电网调频能力的仿真试验,验证了该超临界火电机组负荷-频率模型的有效性。结果表明,该模型可作为超临界火电机组在不同负荷下参与电网调频能力的评估及改善平台。     

Interaction between phase shifting transformers installed in the tie-lines of interconnected power systems and automatic frequency controllers

FACTS devices like TCPAR can be used to regulate the power flow in tie-lines of interconnected power system. The transient state power flow occurring after power disturbances can be influenced by using TCPAR equipped with power regulator and frequency-based stabilizer. The analysis of a simple interconnected power system consisting of two power systems has shown that the control of TCPAR can force a good damping of both power swings and oscillations of local frequency. In the case of a larger interconnected power system consisting of more than two power systems, the influence of the control of TCPAR on damping can be more complicated. Strong damping of local frequency oscillations and power swings in one tie-line may cause larger oscillations in remote tie-lines and other systems. Hence the use of devices like TCPAR as tools for damping power swings and frequency oscillations in a large interconnected power system must be justified by detailed analysis of power system dynamics. In this paper, some results of time-domain simulations of a three-system area are presented. These results have proven that it is possible to obtain a good damping of tie-line power and frequency swings by optimizing the main parameters of TCPAR installed in tie-lines. The results have been confirmed by an eigenvalue analysis of linearized model of interconnected system consisting of three subsystems.     

合肥第二发电厂一次调频系统改进

针对合肥第二发电厂一次调频功能出现的一些问题,对一次调频程序进行优化,提高了一次调频功能对各种工况的适应能力及对电网的支持能力,提高了电厂经济运行水平和安全可靠性,经济效益显著.