Liquid‐Phase Hydrogenation of m‐phenoxybenzaldehyde to m‐phenoxybenzylalcohol Using Raney Nickel Catalyst: Reaction Kinetics

Kinetics of the liquid‐phase catalytic hydrogenation of m‐phenoxybenzaldehyde to m‐phenoxybenzyl alcohol have been investigated over the Raney nickel catalyst. Effects of hydrogen partial pressure (500‐2000 kPa), catalyst loading (1.6‐6.4 g.L^?1), m‐phenoxybenzaldehyde concentration (0.2‐0.8 mol.L^?1) and temperature (333‐363 K) on the progress of the reaction were studied. The speed of stirring > 15 rps has no effect on the initial rate of reaction. Effects of various catalysts and solvents on the hydrogenation of m‐phenoxybenzaldehyde have been investigated. The reaction was found to be first order with respect to the hydrogen partial pressure, catalyst loading and m‐phenoxybenzaldehyde concentration. Several Langmuir‐Hinshelwood type models were considered and the experimental data fitted to the model involving surface reaction, between dissociatively adsorbed hydrogen and molecularly adsorbed m‐phenoxybenzaldehyde.     

Liquid‐Phase Catalytic Hydrogenation of p‐Chlorobenzophenone to p‐Chlorobenzhydrol over a 5 % Pd/C Catalyst

The kinetics of the liquid‐phase catalytic hydrogenation of p‐chlorobenzophenone have been investigated over a 5 % Pd/C catalyst. The effects of hydrogen partial pressure (800–2200 kPa), catalyst loading (0.4–1.6 gm dm^–3), p‐chlorobenzophenone concentration (0.37–1.5 mol dm^–3), and temperature (303–313 K) were studied. A stirring speed > 20 rps has no effect on the initial rate of reaction. Effects of various catalysts (Pd/C, Pd/BaSO₄, Pd/CaCO₃, Pt/C, Raney nickel) and solvents (2‐propanol, methanol, dimethylformamide, toluene, xylene, hexane) on the hydrogenation of p‐chlorobenzophenone were also investigated. The reaction was found to be first order with respect to hydrogen partial pressure and catalyst loading, and zero order with respect to p‐chlorobenzophenone concentration. Several Langmuir‐Hinshelwood type models were considered and the experimental data fitted to a model involving reaction between adsorbed p‐chlorobenzophenone and hydrogen in the liquid phase.     

Kinetics of hydrogenation of 4‐chloro‐2‐nitrophenol catalyzed by Pt/carbon catalyst

Hydrogenation of 4‐chloro‐2‐nitrophenol (CNP) was carried out at moderate hydrogen pressures, 7–28 atm, and temperatures in the range 298–313 K using Pt/carbon and Pd/γ‐Al₂O₃ as catalysts in a stirred pressure reactor. Hydrogenation of CNP under the above conditions gave 4‐chloro‐2‐aminophenol (CAP). Dechlorination to form 2‐aminophenol and 2‐nitrophenol is observed when hydrogenation of CNP is carried out above 338 K, particularly with Pd/γ‐Al₂O₃ catalyst. Among the catalysts tested, 1%Pt/C was found to be an effective catalyst for the hydrogenation of CNP to form CAP, exclusively. To confirm the absence of gas–liquid mass transfer effects on the reaction, the effect of stirring speed (200–1000 rpm) and catalyst loading (0.02–0.16 g) on the initial reaction rate at maximum temperature 310 K and substrate concentration (0.25 mole) were thoroughly studied. The kinetics of hydrogenation of CNP carried out using 1%Pt/C indicated that the initial rates of hydrogenation had first order dependence with respect to substrate, catalyst and hydrogen pressure in the range of concentrations varied. From the Arrhenius plot of ln rate vs 1000/T, an apparent activation energy of 22 kJ mol^?1 was estimated. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Hydrogenation of m‐dinitrobenzene to m‐phenylenediamine over La2O3‐promoted Ni/SiO2 catalysts

BACKGROUND: Liquid‐phase catalytic hydrogenation of m‐dinitrobenzene is an environmentally friendly routine for m‐phenylenediamine production. The key to increasing product yield is to develop catalysts with high catalytic performance. In this work, La₂O₃‐modified Ni/SiO₂ catalysts were prepared and applied to the hydrogenation of m‐dinitrobenzene to m‐phenylenediamine. The effect of La₂O₃ loading on the properties of Ni/SiO₂ was investigated. The reaction kinetic study was performed in ethanol over Ni/3%La₂O₃–SiO₂ catalyst, in order to clarify the reaction mechanism of m‐dinitrobenzene hydrogenation. RESULTS: It was found that the activity of the silica supported nickel catalysts is obviously influenced by La₂O₃ loading. Ni/3%La₂O₃–SiO₂ catalyst exhibits high activity owing to its well dispersed nickel species, with conversion of m‐dinitrobenzene and yield of m‐phenylenediamine up to 97.1% and 94%, respectively. The results also show that Ni/3%La₂O₃–SiO₂ catalyst can be reused at least six times without significant loss of activity. CONCLUSION: La₂O₃ shows strong promotion of the effect of Ni/SiO₂ catalyst for liquid‐phase hydrogenation of m‐dinitrobenzene. La₂O₃ loading can affect the properties of Ni/SiO₂ catalyst. Based on the study of m‐dinitrobenzene hydrogenation kinetics over Ni/3%La₂O₃–SiO₂ catalyst, a possible reaction mechanism is proposed. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Liquid‐Phase Aerobic Oxidation of Benzyl Alcohol Catalyzed by Pt/ZrO2

The oxidation of benzyl alcohol by molecular oxygen in the liquid phase and catalyzed by Pt/ZrO2 using n‐heptane as the solvent was studied. Pt/ZrO₂ was very active and 100 % selective for benzyl alcohol conversion to benzaldehyde. The catalyst can be separated by filtration and reused. No leaching of Pt or Zr into the solution was observed. Typical batch reactor kinetic data were obtained and fitted to the Langmuir‐Hinshelwood, Eley‐Rideal and Mars‐van Krevelen models of heterogeneously catalyzed reactions. The Langmuir‐Hinshelwood model was found to give a better fit. The rate‐determining step was proposed to involve direct interaction of an adsorbed oxidizing species with the adsorbed reactant or an intermediate product of the reactant. H₂O₂ was also proposed to be an intermediate product. n‐Heptane was found to be an appropriate solvent in this reaction system.     

Comparison of Selective Gas Phase‐ and Liquid Phase Hydrogenation of (Cyclo‐)Alkadienes towards Cycloalkenes on Pd/Alumina Egg‐Shell Catalysts

The hydrogenation of dienes such as 1,3‐butadiene, cyclooctadiene, and of acetylenic hydrocarbons on Pd catalysts shows high reaction rates and consequently, a strong influence of mass transfer on the selectivity of the intermediate alkene or cycloalkene product. 100 % selectivity towards (cyclo)‐alkene hydrogenation is achieved for the gas phase when the Thiele modulus is , where L is the thickness of the active layer and D_eff is the effective diffusion coefficient of the diene. The interdependencies expressed by this formula were studied in detail using model catalysts with regular pores of uniform length and diameter and perpendicular to the surface. These catalysts were prepared by anodic oxidation of aluminium wires and immobilization of the active Pd. For the liquid phase procedure of selective hydrogenation, a reaction mass transfer model has been derived in order to compare the gas phase and liquid phase procedures, in particular with respect to the selectivity. The hydrogenation of 1,3‐cyclooctadiene and of 1,3‐butadiene were studied for both procedures employing the same catalyst. The rate of hydrogenation can be represented for both cases by the identical kinetic equation r₁ = k₁ c_H2. This result is interpreted by assuming that the access of hydrogen to the surface through the dense layer of adsorbed diene is the rate determining step.     

没食子酸异戊酯的合成研究

以壳聚糖硫酸盐为催化剂，用没食子酸与异戊酸直接酯化合成了没食子酸异戊酯，用正交试验确定了酸酸物质的量比、催化剂用量、反应时间对没食子酸异戊酯收率的影响。得到了最佳工艺条件：醇酸物质的量比为10：1，催化剂用量为1．0g，反应时间为4h，没食子酸异戊酯的收率可达96．2％。实验表明，该催化剂用于合成没食子酸异戊酯具有极好的催化活性和重复使用性。     

Study on liquid‐phase hydrogenation of paranitrotoluene over Ru‐based catalysts

This paper presented a study on the role of yttrium addition to Ru‐based catalysts for liquid phase paranitrotoluene hydrogenation reaction. An impregnation‐precipitation method was used for preparation of a series of yttrium doped Ru/NaY catalysts with yttrium content in the range of 0.0026–0.0052 g/g. Properties of the obtained samples were characterized and analyzed by X‐ray diffraction (XRD), H₂‐TPR, Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), ICP atomic emission spectroscopy, and Nitrogen adsorption‐desorption. The results revealed that catalytic activity of NaY supported Ru catalysts increased with the yttrium content at first, then decreased with the further increase of yttrium content. When yttrium content was 0.0033 g/g, a Ru‐Y/NaY² catalyst showed the most excellent performance of paranitrotoluene hydrogenation reaction (paranitrotoluene conversion and the selectivity toward P‐methyl‐cyclohexylamine reached 99.9 % and 82.5 %, respectively). In addition, to compare with the performance of Ru‐Y/NaY catalysts, the active carbon supported Ru catalysts were prepared using the same method in view of its higher surface area and adsorption capacity. Finally, the effect of solvent on the reaction over Ru‐Y/NaY² catalyst has been investigated, it was found that the best performance of paranitrotoluene hydrogenation reaction took place in protic solvents (isopropanol and ethanol). This was mainly ascribed to their polarity and hydrogen‐bond accepting capability.

     

Cumene Hydroperoxide Hydrogenation on a Pd/Al2O3 Catalyst in a Trickle Bed Reactor – Kinetics of Hydrogenation and Deactivation

Liquid‐phase hydrogenation using a Pd/Al₂O₃ catalyst provides a potential technique for the reduction of cumene hydroperoxide (CHP) to α‐cumyl alcohol (CA). In this paper, CHP hydrogenation was carried out in a cocurrent downflow trickle‐bed reactor over a wide range of reaction conditions to study the reaction and deactivation kinetics. The proposed intrinsic rate expression for CHP hydrogenation is based on an Eley‐Rideal mechanism that accounts for an irreversible surface reaction between the absorbed CHP with nonabsorbed hydrogen molecules. During CHP hydrogenation, an exponential decay in activity of the Pd/Al₂O₃ catalyst and the presence of residual activity were observed. A kinetic deactivation model with residual activity was developed. Based on reaction and deactivation kinetics, catalyst deactivation was attributed to oxidation of the catalyst surface by CHP. The presence of residual activity was due to the partial reduction of oxidized catalyst surface by hydrogen.     

C18‐unsaturated branched‐chain fatty acid isomers: Characterization and physical properties

Iso‐oleic acid is a mixture of C₁₈‐unsaturated branched‐chain fatty acid isomers with a methyl group on various positions of the alkyl chain, which is the product of the skeletal isomerization reaction of oleic acid and is the intermediate used to make isostearic acid (C₁₈‐saturated branched‐chain fatty acid isomers). Methyl iso‐oleate, a mixture of C₁₈‐unsaturated branched‐chain fatty acid methyl ester isomers, is obtained via acid catalyzed esterification of iso‐oleic acid with methanol. The branched‐chain materials are liquid at room temperature and their “oiliness” property makes them an attractive candidate for the lubricant industry. In this paper, we report characterization of these branched‐chain materials using comprehensive two‐dimensional GC with time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC/TOF‐MS) and their physical and lubricity properties using tribology measurements.     

Partial hydrogenation of benzene catalyzed by Pt/N‐n‐propyl chitosan hybrid membrane

The partial hydrogenation of benzene by a Pt nano‐cluster/N‐n‐propyl chitosan hybrid membrane was investigated in this article. Monodispersed Pt nano‐clusters were prepared by the reduction of H₂PtCl₆ with ethylene glycol under microwave conditions. TEM, FTIR, XRD, ¹H‐NMR, and XPS were used to characterize the structure of Pt nano‐particles, N‐n‐propyl chitosan and Pt/N‐n‐propyl chitosan hybrid membrane, respectively. Experimental results showed that Pt/N‐n‐propyl chitosan hybrid membrane catalyst gave a high selectivity for cyclohexene of 85.2% in the liquid phase hydrogenation of benzene, while the selectivity of cyclohexene was only 58.2% over the Pt/chitosan hybrid membrane catalyst. It was worth noting that there was no cyclohexene in the product when the catalyst was only Pt nano‐particles without chitosan hybrid membrane. So the chitosan or modified‐chitosan membranes played an important role in the controlling to the hydrogenation of benzene, and the relationship of the swelling degree and the catalytic activity was discussed in detail. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

TiSiW_(12)O_(40)/TiO_2催化合成丁酸异戊酯

以固载杂多酸盐TiSiW12 O4 0 /TiO2 为多相催化剂 ,通过正丁酸和异戊醇反应合成了丁酸异戊酯 ,并探讨了诸因素对酯化率的影响。实验表明 :TiSiW12 O4 0 /TiO2 具有良好的催化活性 ,醇酸物质的量比为 1 3∶1,催化剂用量为反应物料总量的 1 5 % ,反应时间 1 0h ,反应温度 12 0℃～ 130℃ ,酯化率可达 95 7%     

Homogeneous Catalytic Hydrogenation of Bio‐Oil and Related Model Aldehydes with RuCl2(PPh3)3

A homogeneous RuCl₂(PPh₃)₃ catalyst was prepared for the hydrogenation of bio‐oil to improve its stability and fuel quality. Experiments were first performed on three model aldehydes of acetaldehyde, furfural and vanillin selected to represent the linear aldehydes, oxygen heterocyclic aldehydes and aromatic aldehydes in bio‐oil. The results demonstrated the high hydrogenation capability of this homogeneous catalyst under mild conditions (55–90 °C, 1.3–3.3 MPa). The highest conversion of the three model aldehydes was over 90 %. Furfural and acetaldehyde were singly converted to furfuryl alcohol and ethanol after hydrogenation, while vanillin was mainly converted to vanillin alcohol, together with a small amount of 2‐methoxy‐4‐methylphenol and 2‐methoxyphenol. Further experiments were conducted on a bio‐oil fraction extracted by ethyl acetate and on the whole bio‐oil at 70 °C and 3.3 MPa. Most of the aldehydes were transformed to the corresponding alcohols, and some ketones and compounds with C–C double bond were converted to more stable compounds.     

Critical gas velocity in a three‐phase internal loop airlift reactor with low‐density particles

In the present investigation the effects of the addition of organic additives (propanol, benzoic acid, iso‐amyl alcohol and carboxymethyl cellulose) on the critical gas velocity, (U_sg)_c, in an internal airlift loop reactor with low‐density particles (Nylon‐6 and polystyrene) were reported. Whereas the (U_sg)_c was reduced by adding the above additives, it increased with solids loading and density of the particles. The draft tube‐to‐reactor diameter ratio (D_E/D) in the range of 0.5–0.6 gave minimum (U_sg)_c values. The proposed dimensionless correlation predicted the experimental data well. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Polymerization of butadiene using neodymium versatate‐based catalyst systems: preformed catalysts with SiCl4 as halide source

The ternary neodymium versatate (NdV₃)‐based catalyst system, NdV₃/SiCl₄/Al(iso‐Bu)₂H, for the stereospecific polymerization of 1,3‐butadiene (Bd) has been studied at a catalyst concentration of 0.11 mmol Nd per 100 g Bd. The effects of the concentration of SiCl₄ following in situ activation, preformed at 20 °C in the presence and absence of isoprene and the substitution of Al(iso‐Bu)₂H with AlEt₃ as alkylating agent, were established and compared to the performance of NdV₃‐based catalyst systems incorporating ethylaluminium sesquichloride (EASC), diethylaluminium chloride (DEAC) and t‐butyl chloride (t‐BuCl) as chloride sources. Comparable catalytic activity between the control catalysts based on EASC, DEAC and t‐BuCl and the studied NdV₃/SiCl₄/Al(iso‐Bu)₂H system was achieved once the optimum concentration ratios of NdV₃/SiCl₄/Al(iso‐Bu)₂H = 1:1:25 were applied in conjunction with preforming the catalyst components in the presence of isoprene for 72 h at 20 °C. Polybutadiene cis‐1,4 contents were consistently high (about 97 %) for all polymerizations. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Diffusion‐enhanced hierarchically macro‐mesoporous catalyst for selective hydrogenation of pyrolysis gasoline

A novel Pd/Al₂O₃ catalyst with the hierarchically macro‐mesoporous structure was prepared and applied to the selective hydrogenation of pyrolysis gasoline. The alumina support possessed a unique structure of hierarchical mesopores and macropores. The as‐prepared and calcined alumina were characterized by X‐ray diffraction, N₂ adsorption‐desorption, and scanning electron microscopy. It showed that the hierarchically porous structure of the alumina was well preserved after calcination at 1073 K, indicating high thermal stability. The 1073 K calcined alumina was impregnated with palladium metal and compared with a commercial catalyst without macrochannels. Both the catalytic activity and the hydrogenation selectivity of the novel Pd/Al₂O₃ catalyst were higher than those of the commercial Pd/Al₂O₃ catalyst. In addition, apparent reaction activation energies obtained with the novel catalyst for model pyrolysis gasoline were 46–81% higher than those with the commercial catalyst. The results adequately demonstrated the enhanced mass transfer characteristics of the novel macro‐mesostructured catalyst. © 2010 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2011     

Pd‐Ag/α‐Al2O3 Catalyst Deactivation in Acetylene Selective Hydrogenation Process

The selective hydrogenation of acetylene to ethylene over Pd‐Ag/α‐Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared by different impregnation/reduction methods was studied. The best catalytic performance was achieved with the sample prepared by sequential impregnation. A kinetic model based on first order in acetylene and 0.5th order in hydrogen for the main reaction and second‐order independent decay law for catalyst deactivation was used to fit the conversion time data and to obtain quantitative assessment of catalyst performances. Fair fits were observed from which the reaction and deactivation rate constants were evaluated. Coke deposition amounts showed a good correlation with catalyst deactivation rate constants, indicating that coke formation should be the main cause of catalyst deactivation.     

Continuous‐Flow Asymmetric Hydrogenation of the β‐Keto Ester Methyl Propionylacetate in Ionic Liquid–Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Biphasic Systems

A continuous‐flow process for the asymmetric hydrogenation of methyl propionylacetate as a prototypical β‐keto ester in a biphasic system of ionic liquid and supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) is presented. An established ruthenium/2,2′‐bis(diphenylphosphino)‐1,1′‐binaphthyl (BINAP) catalyst was immobilised in an imidazolium‐based ionic liquid while scCO₂ was used as mobile phase transporting reactants in and products out of the reactor. The use of acidic additives led to significantly higher reaction rates and enhanced catalyst stability albeit at slightly reduced enantioselectivity. High single pass conversions (>90%) and good enantioselectivity (80–82% ee) were achieved in the first 80 h. The initial catalyst activity was retained to 91% after 100 h and to 69% after 150 h time‐on‐stream, whereas the enantioselectivity remained practically constant during the entire process. A total turnover number of ∼21,000 and an averaged space‐time yield (STY_av) of 149 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹ were reached in a long‐term experiment. No ruthenium and phosphorus contaminants could be detected via inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP‐OES) in the product stream and almost quantitative retention by the analysis of the stationary phase was confirmed. A comparison between batch‐wise and continuous‐flow operation on the basis of these data is provided.     

Etherification rates of 2‐methyl‐2‐butene and 2‐methyl‐1‐butene with ethanol for environmentally clean gasoline production

Etherification of C₅ reactive olefins available in light fluidized catalytic cracking (FCC) gasoline is an attractive way to decrease the olefins and to increase the octane number. The reactivities of 2‐methyl‐1‐butene (2M1B) and 2‐methyl‐2‐butene (2M2B) in the etherification reaction with ethanol catalysed by a strongly acidic macroreticular resin catalyst were investigated in a temperature range of 333–360 K using a liquid phase differential flow reactor. In the presence of excess alcohol, the apparent reaction orders of etherification reactions of isoamylenes were found to be 0.93 and 0.69 with respect to 2M1B and 2M2B concentrations, respectively. 2M1B was shown to be more reactive than 2M2B and its activation energy is also lower in the etherification reaction. It was also shown that diffusion resistances, especially in the macropores of the catalyst, may play an important role on the observed rates. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

Modeling of the propylene polymerization catalyzed by single‐/multi‐active site catalyst: A Monte Carlo study

In the present study, a model is established to describe the propylene polymerization kinetics catalyzed by the typical catalysts with single‐/multi‐active site type in a liquid phase stirred‐tank reactor using the Monte Carlo simulation method, regardless of the mass and heat diffusion effects within the polymer particles. Many kinetic data, including polypropylene yield, concentration transformation of catalyst active sites, number–average molecular weight, etc., are obtained by the model. The simulated kinetic results are found to be in agreement with the reference ones obtained in a population balance model. Furthermore, the comparisons of the kinetic data between the polymerization catalyzed by the catalyst with single‐active site type (typically silica‐supported metallocene) and the catalyst with multi‐active site type (typically MgCl₂‐supported Ziegler‐Natta catalyst) have been studied using the model. Especially, the effects of hydrogen on the polymerization are studied using the model. The studied results show that the theory of catalyst active site can be used to explain the different propylene polymerization kinetics catalyzed by the typical catalyst with single‐/multi‐active site type. In addition, the role of hydrogen in the propylene polymerization needs to be emphasized. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008