Dynamic properties of rubber vibration isolators and antivibration performance of nanoclay‐modified PU/PEL blends system

This research explores the interlayer effect, dynamic mechanical properties, hysteresis behavior, and dynamic antivibration properties of PEL (polypropylene oxide‐polyethylene oxide copolymer with LiClO₄ 20 wt%) for modified PU (mPU) blends with clay and organoclay of varying amounts. The results show that the d‐spacing between the layers of clay and organoclay ranges between 1.78–1.88 nm in the presence of PEL. The dynamic mechanical analysis indicates that the presence of clay and organoclay increases the vibration isolators of the nanocomposites under 20°C. It is found that organically modified clay significantly improves the antivibration performance of the blends based on the compressive vibration hysteresis effect. From the results of the dynamic antivibration test, the dynamic ratio of the blends decreases with the addition of clay or organoclay. In addition, clay is better than organoclay in enhancing the vibration isolation of the mPU blends. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 45:539–548, 2005. © 2005 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Preparation and investigation of ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymer/silicone rubber/clay nanocomposites

In this article, the combination of silicone rubber (SR) elastomer with synthetic iron montmorillonite (Fe‐MMT) to form a kind of new flame‐retardant system based on an ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer is first reported. Also, the flame retardancy of the EVA/SR/Fe‐MMT hybrid are compared with that of EVA/SR/natural sodium montmorillonite. The structures of the nanocomposites were characterized with X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Cone calorimeter tests and thermogravimetric analysis were used to evaluate the flame‐retardant properties and thermal stability of the composites, respectively. In addition, tensile tests were carried out with a universal testing machine, and the morphology of the fracture surface was observed with environmental scanning electron microscopy. We found that SR/organophilic montmorillonite (Fe‐OMT) was more effective in reducing the primary peak heat release rate of the nanocomposite, and the EVA/SR/Fe‐OMT hybrid had a higher thermal stability in the deacetylated polymer than EVA/SR/sodium organophilic montmorillonite. Moreover, the exfoliated EVA/SR/Fe‐OMT nanocomposite displayed excellent mechanical properties because of a better dispersion of Fe‐OMT in the polymer matrix, and a possible mechanism is discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Preparation and properties of ethylene propylene rubber (EPR)–clay nanocomposites based on maleic anhydride‐modified EPR and organophilic clay

Ethylene propylene rubber–clay nanocomposites (EPR–CNs) were prepared by melt‐compounding maleic anhydride modified EPR (EPR‐MA) with organophilic clay, and their properties were examined. Silicate layers of organophilic clay were found to exfoliate and homogeneously disperse into the nanometer level in the nanocomposites by transmission electron microscopy observation. EPR–CNs exhibited higher tensile moduli compared to EPR‐MA and composites containing conventional fillers such as carbon black, talc. The storage moduli of EPR–CNs were also higher than those of EPR‐MA and the conventional composites. Creep resistances of EPR–CNs were much improved compared for EPR‐MA. Degree of swelling in hexadecane was remarkably restricted. Improvement of these properties is caused because dispersed silicate layers have much large interface with the EPR matrix and are thought to strongly restrain the EPR polymer chains. Nanocomposite technology using small amount of silicate layers is useful to improve properties of thermoplastic elastomer. Various kinds of thermoplastic elastomers are expected to be produced by loading of silicate layers with or without conventional fillers. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 758–764, 2004     

Dielectric properties and structures of melt‐compounded poly(ethylene oxide)–montmorillonite nanocomposites

The dielectric dispersion and relaxation process in melt‐compounded hot‐pressed poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)–montmorillonite (MMT) clay nanocomposite films of 0–20 wt % MMT concentration were investigated over the frequency range 20 Hz to 1 MHz at ambient temperature. X‐ray diffraction study of the nanocomposites evidences that the PEO has been intercalated into the MMT interlayer galleries with a helical‐type multilayer structures, which results the formation of unique parallel plane PEO–MMT layered structures. The relaxation times corresponding to PEO chain segmental motion were determined from the loss peak frequencies of different dielectric formalisms and the same is used to explore the interactions compatibility between PEO molecules and the MMT nano platelets. It is revealed that the loading of only 1 wt % MMT in PEO matrix significantly increases the PEO chain segmental motion due to intercalation, which further varies anomalously with increase of MMT concentration. The real part of dielectric function at 1 MHz, relaxation time, and dc conductivity of these melt‐compounded nanocomposites were compared with the aqueous solution‐cast PEO–MMT films. Considering the comparative changes in the values of various dielectric parameters, the effect of synthesization route on the intercalated/exfoliated‐MMT structures and the PEO chain dynamics were discussed. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Novel preparation of poly(propylene)–layered silicate nanocomposites

We used a novel approach to prepare poly(propylene)–clay nanocomposite starting from pristine montmorillonite and reactive compatibilizer hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide. The nanocomposite structure was revealed by X‐ray diffraction and high‐resolution electronic microscopy. The thermal properties of the nanocomposite were investigated by thermogravimetric analysis. An increase of thermal stability was observed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 89: 2586–2588, 2003     

Fine polystyrene latexes with reactive poly(ethylene oxide) –poly(propylene oxide)–poly(ethylene oxide) triblock macrosurfactants in modified miniemulsion polymerization

Polystyrene latexes were produced via a newly accessible miniemulsion polymerization where reactive poly(ethylene oxide)–poly(propylene oxide) –poly(ethylene oxide) triblock macrosurfactants were used to impart the interfacial activity during the emulsification and the reactivity in the polymerization. Through atomic force microscopy studies, it was found that the polystyrene latexes produced were extremely small to about 50 nm in a proper experimental condition, and covered richly with poly(ethylene oxide) groups. The polystyrene latexes were expected to have great applicability in the production of structured latex films. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 84: 328–332, 2002     

Preparation and properties of heterocyclically conjugated poly(3‐hexylthiophene)–clay nanocomposite materials

A series of heterocyclically conjugated polymer–clay nanocomposite (PCN) materials that consisted of organic poly(3‐hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and inorganic montmorillonite (MMT) clay platelets were prepared by in situ oxidative polymerization with FeCl₃ as an oxidant. The as‐synthesized PCN materials were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, wide‐angle powder X‐ray diffraction (WAXRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The effects of the material composition on the anticorrosion, gas barrier, thermal stability, flammability, mechanical strength, and electrical conductivity properties of the P3HT and PCN materials were studied by electrochemical corrosion measurements, gas‐permeability analysis (GPA), thermogrametric analysis (TGA), limiting oxygen index (LOI) measurements, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and a four‐point probe technique, respectively. The molecular weights of extracted and bulk P3HT were determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) with THF as an eluant. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 91: 3438–3446, 2004     

Nanostructured unsaturated polyester modified with poly[(ethylene oxide)-b-(propylene oxide)-b-(ethylene oxide)] triblock copolymer

Miscibility, crystallization and morphology of unsaturated polyester (UP) matrices, nanostructured with a poly[(ethylene oxide)-b-(propylene oxide)-b-(ethylene oxide)] (PEO-b-PPO-b-PEO) block copolymer (BCP) from 0 to 50 wt% has been investigated. Additionally, the role of each block on miscibility and morphology of cured mixtures was studied. Behaviours of non-reactive mixtures of UP thermosetting precursor with two BCPs composed of similar and strong immiscible central PPO block were compared. It was found that one BCP had PEO blocks with not enough molecular weight to compatibilize the PPO block with the UP thermosetting precursor at room temperature. Transmitted light intensity study of mixtures indicated that during curing at 35 °C no macrophase separation took place, contrary to the systems cured at temperatures equal or higher than 60 °C. Curing mixtures at 35 °C produced nanostructured matrices with almost unchanged transparency. Phase separation and miscibility of BCP with UP matrix were measured by means of DSC and DMA. AFM analysis showed worm-like morphology with diameters from 10 to 20 nm and length that evolved from 50 nm to 1 μm with increase of BCP content.     

Impact,thermal, and morphological properties of functionalized rubber toughened‐poly(ethylene terephthalate) nanocomposites

In this study, poly(ethylene terephthalate)/organo‐montmorillonite (PET/OMMT) nanocomposites were melt‐compounded using twin screw extruder followed by injection molding. Maleic anhydride grafted styrene‐ethylene/butylene‐styrene (SEBS‐g‐MAH) was used to improve the impact properties of the PET/OMMT nanocomposites. The notched and un‐notched impact strength of PET/OMMT nanocomposites increased at about 2.5 times and 5.5 times by the addition of 5 wt % of SEBS‐g‐MAH. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) scans were taken from the polished surface of both PET/OMMT and SEBS‐g‐MAH toughened PET/OMMT nanocomposites. The addition of SEBS‐g‐MAH altered the phase structure and clay dispersion in PET matrix. It was found that some of the OMMT silicate layers were encapsulated by SEBS‐g‐MAH. Further, the addition of SEBS‐g‐MAH decreased the degree of crystallinity of the PET/OMMT nanocomposites. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

Preparation and dynamic mechanical properties of poly(styrene‐b‐butadiene)‐modified clay nanocomposites

Polybutyl acrylate (PBA) was intercalated into clay by the method of multistep exchange reactions and diffusion polymerization. The clay interlayer surface is modified, and obtaining the modified clay. The structures of the clay‐PBA, clay‐GA (glutamic acid), and the clay‐DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide) were characterized using X‐ray diffraction (XRD). The new hybrid nanocomposite thermoplastic elastomers were prepared by the clay‐PBA with poly(styrene‐b‐butadiene) block copolymer (SBS) through direct melt intercalation. The dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) curves of the SBS/modified clay nanocomposites show that partial polystyrene segments of the SBS have intercalated into the modified clay interlayer and exhibited a new glass transition at about 157°C (T_g3). The glass transition temperature of polybutadiene segments (T_g1) and polystyrene segments out of the modified clay interlayer (T_g2) are about ?76 and 94°C, respectively, comparied with about ?79 and 100°C of the neat SBS, and they are basically unchanged. The T_g2 intensity of the SBS‐modified clay decreases with increasing the amounts of the modified clay, and the T_g3 intensity of the SBS‐modified clay decreases with increasing the amounts of the modified clay up to about 8.0 wt %. When the contents of the modified clay are less than about 8.0 wt %, the SBS‐modified clay nanocomposites are homogeneous and transparent. The T_gb and T_gs of the SBS‐clay (mass ratio = 98.0/2.0) are ?78.39 and 98.29°C, respectively. This result shows that the unmodified clay does not essentially affect the T_gb and T_gs of the SBS, and no interactions occur between the SBS and the unmodified clay. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 84: 1499–1503, 2002; DOI 10.1002/app.10353     

Fiber spinning from poly(propylene)–organoclay nanocomposite

SOMASIF ME C16, a filler that enables generation of anisotropic nanoparticles by in situ exfoliation of organic layered silicates, was melt compounded with poly(propylene) (PP) in the presence of maleic anhydride‐grafted PP. Fibers were prepared from this composite by a spinning procedure. The prepared anisotropic fibers were partially oriented by using different drawing ratios. The morphological study showed that the drawing ratio of the fibers particularly influences the level of exfoliation of the SOMASIF ME C16 where the nanoparticles are formed. The layered sheets of the SOMASIF particles are oriented in the direction of the fiber axis. The tensile strength of the filled fibers increases with the increase of drawing ratio much more than that of unfilled PP fibers. This result is accounted for by the formation of exfoliated structures from the nanoparticles of SOMASIF ME C16 by fiber drawing. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 89: 604–611, 2003     

Kinetic study of emulsion copolymerization of ethyl methacrylate/lauryl methacrylate in propylene glycol,stabilized with poly(ethylene oxide)–block–polystyrene–block–poly(ethylene oxide) triblock copolymer

The kinetics of emulsion copolymerization of ethyl methacrylate (EMA)/lauryl methacrylate (LMA) in propylene glycol is very similar to the emulsion copolymerizations of water‐soluble monomers in water because of the high solubility of EMA/LMA in propylene glycol. The initial rate of polymerization depends only on initiator concentration and is not affected by either monomer concentration or stabilizer concentration. The overall rate of polymerization is only slightly dependent on monomer concentration and stabilizer concentration and is independent of initiator concentration. The final particle number density increases with increasing amount of stabilizer and decreases with increasing monomer concentration. The total surface area increases with stabilizer concentration and is not governed by either initiator concentration or monomer concentration. Homogeneous nucleation is the dominant mechanism of particle nucleation, as shown by the kinetic data on seeded polymerization and monomer partition behavior. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 82: 1691–1704, 2001     

Thermoplastic elastomeric nanocomposites from poly[styrene–(ethylene‐co‐butylene)–styrene] triblock copolymer and clay: Preparation and characterization

Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE)–clay nanocomposites based on poly[styrene–(ethylene‐co‐butylene)–styrene] triblock copolymer (SEBS) were prepared. Natural sodium montmorillonite (MMT) clay was organically modified by octadecyl amine to produce an amine‐modified hydrophobic nanoclay (OC). Commercially available Cloisite 20A (CL20) and Cloisite 10A, tallow ammine modified nanoclays, were also used. The intergallery spacing of MMT increased on amine modification as suggested by the shifting of the X‐ray diffraction (XRD) peak from 7.6 to 4.5 and 3.8° in the cases of OC and CL20, respectively. The latter demonstrated no XRD peak when it was used at 2 and 4 parts phr in the SEBS system. Transmission electron microscopy studies showed the intercalation–exfoliation morphology in SEBS containing 4 parts of CL20₄–SEBS, agglomeration in SEBS having 4 parts of MMT, and mixed morphology in SEBS with 4 parts of OC systems. Locations of the clay particles were indicated by the atomic force micrographs. Mechanical and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis studies confirmed the best properties with the CL20₄–SEBS nanocomposites. Significant improvements in mechanical properties such as tensile strength, modulus, work to break, and elongation at break were achieved with the CL20₄–SEBS in polymer‐layered silicate nanocomposites. Dynamic mechanical studies further showed the affinity of the organoclays toward both segments of the TPE and a compatibilization effect with CL20 at a 4‐phr loading. Atomic force microscopy showed distinctly different morphologies in nanocomposites prepared through solution and melt processing. Comparisons of the mechanical, dynamic mechanical, and morphological properties of the nanocomposites prepared by melt and solution intercalation processes were done. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 2040–2052, 2006     

Reaction‐induced phase separation and resulting thermomechanical and surface properties of epoxy resin/poly(ethylene oxide)–poly(propylene oxide)–poly(ethylene oxide) blends cured with 4,4′‐diaminodiphenylsulfone

We investigated the phase separation, cure kinetics and thermomechanical properties of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol‐A/4,4′‐diaminodiphenylsulfone/poly(ethylene oxide)–poly(propylene oxide)–poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO–PPO–PEO) triblock copolymer (TBCP) blends. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and atomic force microscopy revealed that the blends exhibited heterogeneous phase morphology in which the TBCP formed dispersed domains in epoxy matrix, due to reaction induced phase separation. A fraction of phase‐separated PEO phase underwent partial crystallization whereas another fraction formed interphases between the dispersed domains and epoxy matrix. Moreover, the dispersed PEO chains improved the compatibility and interfacial adhesion between the matrix and domains and, consequently, significantly improved the mechanical properties of epoxy resin. Furthermore, the thermal degradation studies and contact angle measurements disclosed that the dispersed domains were well protected by the epoxy matrix. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017 , 134, 44406.     

Aggregation properties of amphiphilic poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) block copolymer studied by cyclic voltammetry

The cyclic voltammetric behaviors at a platinum electrode of an amphiphilic block copolymer [poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(propylene oxide)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (F127)] in aqueous solutions were investigated. The mechanism of the electrochemical reaction of F127 at a platinum electrode was deduced. The diffusion coefficients of different-shaped aggregates formed by F127 were determined on this basis. The first and second critical micelle concentrations, corresponding to the formation of spherical micelles and the transition of the spherical to rod-like micelles, were 3.72×10⁻⁴ mol·L⁻¹ and 1.49×10⁻³ mol·L⁻¹, respectively, which could be confirmed by the fluorescent anisotropy of pyrene in the F127 aggregates and the morphology of F127 micelles observed by freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy.     

Synergistic effect of three‐dimensional multi‐walled carbon nanotube–graphene nanofiller in enhancing the mechanical and thermal properties of high‐performance silicone rubber

The homogeneous dispersion of nanofillers and filler–matrix interfacial interactions are important factors in the development of high‐performance polymer materials for various applications. In the present work, a simple solution‐mixing method was used to prepare multi‐walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)–graphene (G) (3:1, 1:1, 1:3) hybrids followed by their characterization through wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and thermogravimetric analyses. Subsequently, MWCNT–G (1:1) hybrid was used as reinforcing filler in the formation of silicone rubber (VMQ) nanocomposites by solution intercalation, and their morphology and properties were investigated. Our findings showed that MWCNT–G (0.75 wt%)/VMQ composite exhibited significant improvements in tensile strength (110%) and Young's modulus (137%) compared to neat VMQ. The thermal stability of MWCNT–G (1 wt%)/VMQ was maximally improved by 154 °C compared to neat VMQ. Differential scanning calorimetry demonstrated the maximum improvement of glass transition temperature (4 °C), crystallization temperature (8 °C) and melting temperature (5 °C) for MWCNT–G (1 wt%)/VMQ nanocomposite with respect to neat VMQ. Swelling measurements confirmed that the crosslink density and solvent resistance were a maximum for hybrid nanocomposites. Such improvements in the properties of MWCNT–G/VMQ nanocomposites could be attributed to a synergistic effect of the hybrid filler. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

A new dye‐modified poly(ethylene oxide)–poly(propylene oxide) polymer used as a dispersant for CI Disperse Red 60

A new dye‐modified poly(ethylene oxide)–poly(propylene oxide) polymer, in which the dye molecule (CI Disperse Red 60) is bonded onto polyether monoamine via a triazine ring, was synthesised for the preparation of dye aqueous dispersions and was characterised by Fourier Transform‐infrared spectroscopy, ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and elemental analysis. This polymer exhibits unique dispersing performance for CI Disperse Red 60. The mechanism behind the improved performance is briefly discussed with the help of adsorption isotherms. The results indicated that the hydrophobic dye group of this polymer can strongly adsorb onto the dye particle surface through π–π interaction while its long hydrophilic poly(ethylene oxide) chains allow the formation of a thick layer around the dye particles. It was speculated that the adsorbed polymer molecule on the dye surface would form a brush‐like monolayer conformation. The dyeing performance of the prepared dye dispersions on polyester fabrics was also investigated. It was found that this polymer can effectively increase the apparent solubility of disperse dye. The dyed fabrics showed very good to excellent fastness to washing and rubbing, while the dyeing effluent was colourless.     

Property enhancement in polypropylene ternary blend nanocomposites via a novel poly(ethylene oxide)‐grafted polystyrene‐block‐poly(ethylene/butylene)‐block‐polystyrene toughener–compatibilizer system

Synthesis and characterization of a novel toughener–compatibilizer for polypropylene (PP)–montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites were conducted to provide enhanced mechanical and thermal properties. Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) blocks were synthetically grafted onto maleic anhydride‐grafted polystyrene‐block‐poly(ethylene/butylene)‐block‐polystyrene (SEBS‐g‐MA). Special attention was paid to emphasize the effect of PEO‐grafted SEBS (SEBS‐g‐PEO) against SEBS‐g‐MA on morphology, static/dynamic mechanical properties and surface hydrophilicity of the resultant blends and nanocomposites. It was found that the silicate layers of neat MMT are well separated by PEO chains chemically bonded to nonpolar SEBS polymer without needing any organophilic modification of the clay as confirmed by X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy analyses. From scanning electron microscopy analyses, elastomeric domains interacting with MMT layers via PEO sites were found to be distributed in the PP matrix with higher number and smaller sizes than the corresponding blend. As a benefit of PEO grafting, SEBS‐g‐PEO‐containing nanocomposite exhibited not only higher toughness/impact strength but also increased creep recovery, as compared to corresponding SEBS‐g‐MA‐containing nanocomposite and neat PP. The damping parameter of the same nanocomposite was also found to be high in a broad range of temperatures as another advantage of the SEBS‐g‐PEO toughener–compatibilizer. The water contact angles of the blends and nanocomposites were found to be lower than that of neat hydrophobic PP which is desirable for finishing processes such as dyeing and coating. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry     

Properties of poly(ethylene terephthalate)–poly(ethylene naphthalene 2,6‐dicarboxylate) blends with montmorillonite clay

The production and properties of blends of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and poly(ethylene naphthalene 2,6‐dicarboxylate) (PEN) with three modified clays are reported. Octadecylammonium chloride and maleic anhydride (MAH) are used to modify the surface of the montmorillonite–Na⁺ clay particles (clay–Na⁺) to produce clay–C18 and clay–MAH, respectively, before they are mixed with the PET/PEN system. The transesterification degree, hydrophobicity and the effect of the clays on the mechanical, rheological and thermal properties are analysed. The PET–PEN/clay–C18 system does not show any improvements in the mechanical properties, which is attributed to poor exfoliation. On the other hand, in the PET–PEN/clay–MAH blends, the modified clay restricts crystallization of the matrix, as evidenced in the low value of the crystallization enthalpy. The process‐induced PET–PEN transesterification reaction is affected by the clay particles. Clay–C18 induces the largest proportion of naphthalate–ethylene–terephthalate (NET) blocks, as opposed to clay–Na⁺ which renders the lowest proportion. The clay readily incorporates in the bulk polymer, but receding contact‐angle measurements reveal a small influence of the particles on the surface properties of the sample. The clay–Na⁺ blend shows a predominant solid‐like behaviour, as evidenced by the magnitude of the storage modulus in the low‐frequency range, which reflects a high entanglement density and a substantial degree of polymer–particle interactions. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Natural rubber/poly(ethylene‐co‐vinyl acetate)‐blend‐based nanocomposites

Natural rubber (NR)/poly(ethylene‐co‐vinyl acetate) (EVA) blend–clay nanocomposites were prepared and characterized. The blend nanocomposites were prepared through the melt mixing of NR/EVA in a ratio of 40/60 with various amounts of organoclay with an internal mixer followed by compression molding. X‐ray diffraction patterns revealed that the nanocomposites formed were intercalated. The formation of the intercalated nanocomposites was also indicated by transmission electron microscopy. Scanning electron microscopy, used to study the fractured surface morphology, showed that the distribution of the organoclay in the polymer matrix was homogeneous. The tensile modulus of the nanocomposites increased with an increase in the organoclay content. However, an increase in the organoclay content up to 5 phr did not affect the tensile strength, but the organoclay reduced this property when it was increased further. This study also indicated that a low silicate content dispersed in the blend matrix was capable of increasing the storage modulus of the material. The addition of the organoclay also increased the decomposition temperature of the NR/EVA blends. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 353–362, 2006