Upward mobilization of 137Cs in surface soils of Chamaecyparis obtusa Sieb. et Zucc. (hinoki) plantation in Japan

The use of 137Cs has recently been adopted to estimate erosion in hinoki plantations in Japan. However, there have been several reports of the upward mobilization of 137Cs in forest humus layers. In this study, the vertical distribution of 137Cs within the soil profile was measured in a hinoki plantation. In order to confirm the upward migration of 137Cs from mineral soil to fresh surface litter and to identify mechanisms of the transfer, changes in 137Cs specific activity in the contents of litterbags were examined in a hinoki plantation. A controlled laboratory experiment was also conducted to assess the effect of microbial activity on the upward migration of 137Cs. As a result, the higher 137Cs activities in the surface organic layer of a hinoki plantation than in fresh litter and the increasing 137Cs total content of litterbags with time demonstrated the upward mobilization of 137Cs from mineral soil to the surface organic layer. Physical movement of soil particles by raindrop splash was considered an important process in 137Cs upward migration. The results of our laboratory experiment indicate an influence from soil microbial activity on the upward mobilization of 137Cs. Thus, upward migration of 137Cs and constant litter removal by runoff may induce 137Cs loss from steep forested catchments and underestimation of the 137Cs inventory leading to the overestimation of soil redistribution rates.     

Testing of a foodchain model using Chernobyl 137Cs fallout data and considering the effect of countermeasures

Chernobyl 137Cs fallout data obtained during the period 1986-1996 from the most contaminated area in Russia were used within the IAEA BIOMASS programme to test the reliability of radiological assessment models. This model-testing scenario included information and data on countermeasures that were applied in the test area after the accident. This paper presents the predictions of the terrestrial foodchain model SPADE that was used in this model-testing exercise. SPADE predictions compared reasonably well with test data except for pigs and wild berries where differences were up to a factor of 50 and 200, respectively. Estimated intake of 137Cs and ingestion dose by adult men and women living in the test area compared favourably with the test data. Overall, SPADE proved to be capable of simulating agricultural countermeasures and their effectiveness. Modelling of countermeasures was found to be a complex process with large uncertainties regarding their 'real' implementation and effectiveness. The lessons learned from this exercise will be valuable in making future dose assessments/reconstructions involving countermeasures with improved results.     

Application of potassium chloride to a Chernobyl-contaminated lake: modelling the dynamics of radiocaesium in an aquatic ecosystem and decontamination of fish

This study tests a whole-lake experiment to reduce the bioaccumulation of radiocaesium (137Cs) in fish in lakes contaminated by the Chernobyl accident. In many lakes in the Chernobyl contaminated areas, radiocaesium activity concentrations in fish are still significantly higher (up to 100 times in some species) than acceptable limits for human consumption. Estimates of the long-term rate of decline of 137Cs in fish in these regions, in the absence of countermeasures, show that radioactivity in fish in some lakes may remain above acceptable consumption limits for a further 50-100 years from the present date. In February 1998 we applied 15 t of potassium chloride to Lake Svyatoe, Kostiukovichy. The addition of potassium chloride fertilizer to the lake resulted in a decrease in activity concentration of 137Cs to approximately 40% of pre-countermeasure values in a number of different fish species. In contrast to Lake Svyatoe, 137Cs activity concentrations in fish from four control lakes showed no systematic decrease over the study period. Simplified models for transfers of 137Cs in lakes successfully 'blind' predicted the changes in 137Cs in water and fish resulting from this major alteration of the potassium concentration of the lake. The experiment represents the first test of a predictive model for the dynamics of radiocaesium in response to a major perturbation in potassium (its major competitor ion) in a whole lake ecosystem.     

Prediction of the effects of soil-based countermeasures on soil solution chemistry of soils contaminated with radiocesium using the hydrogeochemical code PHREEQC

For agriculturally used areas, which are contaminated by the debris from a nuclear accident, the use of chemical amendmends (e.g. potassium chloride and lime) is among the most common soil-based countermeasures. These countermeasures are intended to reduce the plant uptake of radionuclides (mainly 137Cs and 90Sr) by competitive inhibition by chemically similar ions. So far, the impacts of countermeasures on soil solution composition - and thus, their effectiveness - have almost exclusively been established experimentally, since they depend on mineral composition and chemical characteristics of the soil affected. In this study, which focuses on caesium contamination, the well-established code PHREEQC was used as a geochemical model to calculate the changes in the ionic compositions of soil solutions, which result from the application of potassium or ammonium in batch equilibrium experiments. The simple ion exchange model used by PHREEQC was improved by taking into account selective sorption of Cs+, NH4+ and K+ by clay minerals. Calculations were performed with three different initial soil solution compositions, corresponding to particular soil types (loam, sand, peat). For loamy and sandy soils, our calculational results agree well with experimental data reported by Nisbet (Effectiveness of soil-based countermeasures six months and one year after contamination of five diverse soil types with caesium-134 and strontium-90. Contract Report NRPB-M546, National Radiation Protection Board, Chilton, 1995.). For peat, discrepancies were found indicating that for organic soils a reliable set of exchange constants of the relevant cations still has to be determined experimentally. For cesium, however, these discrepancies almost disappeared if selective sites were assumed to be inaccessible. Additionally, results of sensitivity analyses are presented by which the influence of the main soil parameters on Cs+ concentrations in solution after soil treatment has been systematically studied. It is shown that calculating the impacts of soil-based chemical countermeasures on soil solution chemistry using geochemical codes such as PHREEQC offers an attractive alternative to establishing these impacts by often time-consuming and site-specific experiments.     

137Cs distribution and geochemistry of Lena River (Siberia) drainage basin lake sediments

The Lena River is the second largest river that discharges into the Arctic Ocean. It is therefore important to determine not only the direct impact its discharge has on the 137Cs concentration of the Arctic, but also the potential its drainage basin has as a 137Cs source. 137Cs surface sediment concentrations and inventory values, which range from 4.97 to 338 Bq kg(-1) and 357 to 1732 Bq m(-2), respectively, were determined for the Lena River drainage basin lake samples, via gamma analysis. The average geochemical and mineralogical composition of a subset of samples was also determined using neutron activation analysis, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry techniques. Results of these geochemical analyses allowed for the identification of key geochemical factors that influence the distribution of 137Cs in the Lena River drainage basin. 137Cs profiles indicate that Lena River drainage basin lacustrine sediments serve as a record of 137Cs fallout. Based on the downcore 137Cs, %illite, %smectite, %Al and %Mn distribution patterns, it was concluded that a small fraction of non-selectively bound 137Cs was remobilized at depth in some cores. Inconsistencies between the actual 137Cs fallout record and the 137Cs profiles determined for the lake sediments were attributed to 137Cs remobilization in subsurface sediments. In addition to establishing the agreement between the global atmospheric fallout record and the downcore 137Cs distribution patterns determined for these sediments, results indicate that 137Cs deposited during periods of maximum atmospheric release was buried and is not susceptible to surface erosion processes. However, mean 137Cs concentrations of the lacustrine surface sediments (125 Bq kg(-1)) are still significantly higher than those of the nearby Lena River estuary (11.22 Bq kg(-1)) and Laptev Sea (6.00 Bq kg(-1)). Our study suggests that the Lena River drainage basin has the potential to serve as a source of 137Cs to the adjacent Arctic Ocean.     

Caesium-137 migration in Hungarian soils

Distribution of 137Cs activity concentration has been measured in soils from 19 Hungarian counties. The levels of soil contamination in Hungary after the Chernobyl fallout are sufficient to study the vertical distribution of the 137Cs under natural conditions. Samples were taken layer by layer on plain, grassy and uncultivated fields down to a depth of 20 cm. The results show that radiocaesium migrates very slowly in the soils investigated. The 137Cs concentration peaks in almost all of the soils remain in the top 5 cm layer, but the distribution patterns are different. Variations in diffusion, sorption-desorption, and complexing processes, plant uptake and plant- and animal-originated mechanical changes result in the formation of site-specific radionuclide distribution profiles. On the basis of the experimental data a model has been developed for the long-term prediction of the 137Cs migration. By application of an applied diffusion-convection model the results can be well fitted, the initial deposition can be calculated and the data can be used for the long-term prediction of the 137Cs distribution profile.     

Radionuclide contamination of foods imported into Iraq following the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident

Since early 1986, a monitoring program for radionuclides in imported foods has been carried out by the Iraqi Atomic Energy Commission. After the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident in the Soviet Union, the program was expanded; our laboratory was officially designated by the Iraqi Government to measure radionuclide activity concentrations in foodstuff imported from countries known to be severely contaminated by Chernobyl radioactive fallout. Gamma-spectrometric analysis was used. Food items such as powdered milk, lamb meat, poultry, cereals and grains imported into Iraq before the Chernobyl accident did not contain any detectable fission products. However, all lamb meat, 81% of the lentil, 44% of the powdered milk and chick-pea, and 17% of the roast beef samples were contaminated with 137Cs or 134Cs and 137Cs. The highest 137Cs contamination levels found were 82, 147, 420, 6 and 4 Bq kg-1, respectively. Contamination by 134Cs was approximately 50% of the values given above.     

137Cs availability for soil to understory transfer in different types of forest ecosystems

A quantitative analysis of 137Cs bioavailability in forest soils in the long term after the Chernobyl NPP accident based on a 3-year (1996-1998) investigation is presented. Five forest sites with different trees, composition and properties of soil were studied to identify factors determining radiocaesium transfer to different understory species. The following parameters were investigated: 137Cs activity concentrations and its speciation in various horizons of forest soil, accumulation of this radionuclide by different species of understory vegetation and distribution of root biomass in the soil profile. It has been shown that one decade after the deposition maximum 137Cs activity in soil of the experimental sites considered is located in different soil layers dependent on moisture regime, characteristics of litter and soil properties. A linear dependence between aggregated transfer factors for different species and groups of species of understory vegetation and exchangeable and available fractions of radiocaesium in soil was found. The vertical distribution of 137Cs activity, percentage of exchangeable radiocaesium in each horizon of litter and soil, as well as distribution of root systems (mycelia) over the soil profile are key factors governing variations in the availability of 137Cs for transfer to all forest understory components.     

137Cs loss via soil erosion from a mountainous headwater catchment in central Japan

Eroded sediment and coarse organic material were sampled for a year at the outlet of the study catchment in central Japan to investigate characteristics of 137Cs loss and to quantify erosional 137Cs loss in a forested headwater catchment. Results showed that loss of both eroded sediment and 137Cs varied markedly according to the magnitude of rainfall events. About 90% of the total sediment delivery and the total 137Cs loss was associated with only two storm rainfall events. The significant contribution of high-magnitude-low-frequency storm events to 137Cs loss from the catchment was emphasized. To quantify the contribution of erosional 137Cs loss to 137Cs cycling, the current mean 137Cs inventory of the study catchment was estimated from direct measurements of 137Cs in soil cores collected from 27 points. The input of 137Cs through litterfall to the soil was estimated from monitoring the annual litterfall of the study catchment. The present 137Cs fallout input was estimated from published 137Cs fallout data. Consequently, the loss of 137Cs associated with eroded sediment was estimated to represent 0.013% of the 137Cs inventory of the study catchment, which is comparable to the input through litterfall. The equivalent value for 137Cs runoff with coarse organic material was estimated as 0.0003%. Therefore, the effect of 137Cs loss in association with coarse organic material on estimates of erosion rate obtained by measuring 137Cs inventories in soil core samples was inferred to be negligible in Japanese cypress plantations. Results confirm the applicability of 137Cs measurements to estimate erosion rates in other relatively stable forested areas.     

137Cs in the western South Pacific Ocean

The 137Cs activities were determined for seawater samples from the East Caroline, Coral Sea, New Hebrides, South Fiji and Tasman Sea (two stations) Basins of the western South Pacific Ocean by gamma spectrometry using a low background Ge detector. The 137Cs activities ranged from 1.4 to 2.3 Bq m(-3) over the depth interval 0-250 m and decreased exponentially from the subsurface to 1000 m depth. The distribution profiles of 137Cs activity at these six western South Pacific Ocean stations did not differ from each other significantly. There was a remarkable difference for the vertical profiles of 137Cs activity between the East Caroline Basin station in this study and the GEOSECS (Geochemical Ocean Sections Study) station at the same latitude in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean; the 137Cs inventory over the depth interval 100-1000 m increased from 400+/-30 Bq m(-2) to 560+/-30 Bq m(-2) during the period from 1973 to 1992. The total 137Cs inventories in the western South Pacific Ocean ranged from 850+/-70 Bq m(-2) in the Coral Sea Basin to 1270+/-90 Bq m(-2) in the South Fiji Basin. Higher 137Cs inventories were observed at middle latitude stations in the subtropical gyre than at low latitude stations. The 137Cs inventories were 1.9-4.5 times (2.9+/-0.7 on average) and 1.7-4.3 times (3.1+/-0.7 on average) higher than that of the expected deposition density of atmospheric global fallout at the same latitude and that of the estimated 137Cs deposition density in 10 degrees latitude by 10 degrees longitude grid data obtained by Aoyama et al. [Aoyama M, Hirose K, Igarashi Y. Re-construction and updating our understanding on the global weapons tests 137Cs fallout. J Environ Monit 2006;8:431-438], respectively. The possible processes for higher 137Cs inventories in the western South Pacific Ocean than that of the expected deposition density of atmospheric global fallout may be attributable to the inter-hemisphere dispersion of the atmospheric nuclear weapons testing 137Cs from the northern stratosphere to the southern one and its subsequent deposition, and water-bearing transport of 137Cs from the North Pacific Ocean to the western South Pacific.     

The fate of 137Cs in coniferous forests following the application of wood-ash.

In the future, it may become common practice in Swedish forestry to recycle wood-ash, a waste product of the combustion of bio-fuel. As a consequence of the Chernobyl radioactive fallout in 1986, large areas of central Sweden were contaminated. Application of recycled wood-ash, originating from contaminated areas, to a previously uncontaminated forest, risks an increase in the concentration of radioactive 137Cs. We measured 137Cs radioactivity in different parts of coniferous forests in seven field experiments. Measurements of radioactivity were made 5-8 years after an application of wood-ash equivalent to 3000 kg ha(-1). The sites, in a north-south transect across Sweden, have a background radioactivity ranging from 0 to 40 kBq m(-2), the higher levels are mainly a result of the Chernobyl fall-out. Depending on its origin, the radioactivity of the applied wood-ash ranged from 0.0 to 4.8 kBq kg(-1), corresponding to 0.0-1.44 kBq m(-2). In autumn 1999, samples were taken from the soil, field vegetation, needles and twigs and the levels of 137Cs determined. In addition, soil samples were analysed for extractable K. The highest 137Cs concentration was found in the soil. At six of the seven sites there were no statistically significant effects of wood-ash application on 137Cs activity. This was despite the fact that the wood-ash had, in one case, added the same amount of radioactivity as the background. However, at one site with intermediate 137Cs deposition (10-20 kBq m(-2)), there was a statistically significant decrease in 137Cs radioactivity in the soil, needles and twigs from the plots treated with wood-ash. The decrease in radioactivity was partly due to the fact that one of the main constituents of wood-ash is K, which is antagonistic to 137Cs. Based on our results, it appears that application of wood-ash containing 137Cs does not necessarily increase the 137Cs radioactivity in plants and soil. However, some of the observed effects could be a result of the low number of replicates used in this study.     

Prediction of spatial variation in global fallout of 137Cs using precipitation

Deposition from atmospheric nuclear weapons tests (termed global fallout) has been shown to be proportional to the rate of precipitation. Here we describe methods for using precipitation and radionuclide deposition information for a reference site to estimate global fallout at other locations. These methods have been used to estimate global fallout in Iceland, identified during the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) by Wright et al. [Wright, S.M., Howard, B.J., Strand, P., Nylén, T., Sickel, M.A.K., 1999. Prediction of 137Cs deposition from atmospheric nuclear weapons tests within the Arctic. Environ Pollut 104, 131-143.] as one of the Arctic areas which received the highest global fallout, but where measurements of contamination were sparse, and difficult to obtain due to the remote and inaccessible terrain of much of the country. Measurements of global fallout 137Cs deposition have been made in Iceland at sites close to meteorological stations to ensure that precipitation data were of high quality. The AMAP modeling approach, based on measured precipitation and radionuclide deposition data, was applied using a reference monitoring station located close to Reykjavik. The availability of good precipitation data and locally based estimates of time dependent ratios of 137Cs deposition to precipitation during the fallout period gave a better correlation between predicted and measured 137Cs global fallout (r2=0.96) than that achieved using the much more heterogeneous set of data collected by AMAP over the whole of the Arctic. Having obtained satisfactory results with the model for a number of calibration sites alongside meteorological stations we then produced a map of estimated 137Cs deposition based on a model of estimated precipitation. This deposition map was then successfully validated (r2=0.85) for sites where 137Cs deposition was measured; the associated uncertainty in predictions was also estimated.     

Transfer of 137Cs and stable Cs from soil to potato in agricultural fields.

The concentrations of 137Cs, stable Cs and K were measured in soils and potatoes collected from 26 agricultural fields in Aomori, Japan and soil-to-potato transfer factors of 137Cs and stable Cs were determined. The concentrations of 137Cs derived from fallout deposition and stable Cs in soils were 1-37 Bq kg-1 and 1-11 mg kg-1, respectively. The isotopes, 137Cs and stable Cs, were homogeneously mixed in the rooting zone in the upper 20 cm of soil in agricultural fields. The concentrations of 137Cs and stable Cs in potatoes were 50-2000 mBq kg-1 dry wt. and 0.004-0.13 mg kg-1 dry wt., respectively. The soil-to-potato transfer factor of 137Cs was in the range of 0.0037-0.16, which was higher than that of stable Cs of 0.00052-0.080. The transfer factors of 137Cs and stable Cs were correlated and the geometric mean of 137Cs was 0.030, which was four times higher than that of stable Cs at 0.0075. This implied that artificially added 137Cs is more mobile and more easily absorbed by plants than stable Cs in the soil. The concentration of K in potatoes showed a relatively constant value, independent of that in the soil. The transfer factors of both 137Cs and stable Cs decreased with increasing K concentration in the soil, which was mainly supplied as fertilizers to the fields. This suggests that the transfer of both 137Cs and stable Cs from soil to potato was affected by the presence of K in the soil. However, the transfer factors of 137Cs and stable Cs were independent of the amount of organic materials in soils.     

Levels and trends of radioactive contaminants in the Greenland environment

Levels of radioactive contaminants in various Greenland environments have been assessed during 1999-2001. The source of 137Cs, 90Sr and (239,240)Pu in terrestrial and fresh water environments is mainly global fallout. In addition, the Chernobyl accident gave a small contribution of 137Cs. Reindeer and lamb contain the largest observed 137Cs concentrations in the terrestrial environment--up to 80 Bq kg(-1) fresh weight have been observed in reindeer. Due to special environmental conditions, 137Cs is transferred to landlocked Arctic char with extremely high efficiency in South Greenland leading to concentrations up to 100 Bq kg(-1) fresh weight. In these cases very long ecological half-lives are seen. Concentrations of 99Tc, 137Cs and 90Sr in seawater and in marine biota decrease in the order North-East Greenland and the coastal East Greenland current > South-West Greenland > Central West Greenland and North-West Greenland > Irmiger Sea-Faroe Islands. The general large-scale oceanic circulation combined with European coastal discharges and previous contamination of the Arctic Ocean causes this. As the same tendency is seen for the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) DDT and PCB in marine biota, it is suggested that long-distance oceanic transport by coastal currents is a significant pathway also for POPs in the Greenland marine environment. The peak 99Tc discharge from Sellafield 1994-1995 has only been slightly visible in the present survey year 2000. The concentrations are expected to increase in the future, especially in East Greenland. The Bylot Sound at the Thule Airbase (Pituffik) in North-West Greenland was contaminated with plutonium and enriched uranium in a weapons accident in 1968. Biological activity has mixed accident plutonium efficiently into the new sediments resulting in continued high surface sediment concentrations three decades after the accident. Transfer of plutonium to benthic biota is low--and lower than observed in the Irish Sea. This is supposed to be caused by the physico-chemical form of the accident plutonium. A recent study indicates that 'hot particles' hold considerably more plutonium than previously anticipated and that the Bylot Sound sediments may account for the major part of the un-recovered plutonium after the accident, i.e. approximately 3 kg.     

Long-term decline of 137Cs concentration in honey in the second decade after the Chernobyl accident

In the years 2001-2004 the (137)Cs activity was investigated in a total of 336 samples of different varieties of honey harvested in the Liguria Region of Northern Italy. Our purpose was to define (a) residual radioactive contamination following the Chernobyl accident and (137)Cs long-term decline, (b) correlation between (137)Cs activity and different honey varieties, and (c) correlation between (137)Cs activity and the prevailing geomorphological configuration in the collection areas. The mean (137)Cs specific activity was 4.33+/-5.04 S.D. Bq/kg. Chestnut honey showed higher levels of radioactive contamination, which were ascribed to the extensive, superficial and deep, root apparatus of the tree. Honey samples from acidic argillite soils, which withhold radionuclides after deposition and slowly release them to plants, also showed higher (137)Cs activity. Long-term decline was calculated at 456 days, a value lower than those published from different food sources in the years following the accident. The rate of long-term decline decreases with time.     

Deposition of atmospheric (137)Cs in Japan associated with the Asian dust event of March 2002

Considerable deposition of (137)Cs was observed in the northwestern coastal area of Japan in March 2002. Since there were no nuclear explosions or serious nuclear accidents in the early 2000s, transport of previously contaminated dust appears to be the only plausible explanation for this event. In March 2002, there was a massive sandstorm on the East Asian continent, and the dust raised by the storm was transported across the sea to Japan. This dust originated in Mongolia and northeastern China, in an area distant from the Chinese nuclear test site at Lop Nor or any other known possible sources of (137)Cs. Our radioactivity measurements showed (137)Cs enrichment in the surface layer of grassland soils in the area of the sandstorm, which we attributed to accumulation as a result of past nuclear testing. We suggest that the grassland is a potential source of (137)Cs-bearing soil particles. Since the late 1990s, this area has experienced drought conditions, resulting in a considerable reduction of vegetation cover. We attribute the prodigious release of (137)Cs-bearing soil particles into the atmosphere during the sandstorm and the subsequent deposition of (137)Cs in Japan to this change.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi mediated uptake of 137Cs in leek and ryegrass

In a first experiment of soil contaminated with 137Cs, inoculation with a mixture of arbuscular mycorrhizae enhanced the uptake of 137Cs by leek under greenhouse conditions, while no effect on the uptake by ryegrass was observed. The mycorrhizal infection frequency in leek was independent of whether the 137Cs-contaminated soil was inoculated with mycorrhizal spores or not. The lack of mycorrhizae-mediated uptake of 137Cs in ryegrass could be due to the high root density, which was about four times that of leek, or due to a less well functioning mycorrhizal symbiosis than of leek. In a second experiment, ryegrass was grown for a period of four cuts. Additions of fungi enhanced 137Cs uptake of all harvests, improved dry weight production in the first cut, and also improved the mycorrhizal infection frequencies in the roots. No differences were obtained between the two fungal inoculums investigated with respect to biomass production or 137Cs uptake, but root colonization differed. We conclude that, under certain circumstances, mycorrhizae affect plant uptake of 137Cs. There may be a potential for selecting fungal strains that stimulate 137Cs accumulation in crops. The use of ryegrass seems to be rather ineffective for remediation of 137Cs-contaminated soil.     

Plutonium and 137Cs in surface water of the South Pacific Ocean

The present plutonium and 137Cs concentrations in South Pacific Ocean surface waters were determined. The water samples were collected in the South Pacific mid-latitude region (32.5 degrees S) during the BEAGLE expedition conducted in 2003-04 by JAMSTEC. 239,240Pu concentrations in surface seawater of the South Pacific were in the range of 0.5 to 4.1 mBq m(-3), whereas 137Cs concentrations ranged from 0.07 to 1.7 Bq m(-3). The observed 239,240Pu and 137Cs concentrations in the South Pacific were almost of the same level as those in the North Pacific subtropical gyre. The surface 239,240Pu in the South Pacific subtropical gyre showed larger spatial variations than 137Cs, as it may be affected by physical and biogeochemical processes. The 239,240Pu/137Cs activity ratios, which reflect biogeochemical processes in seawater, were generally smaller than that observed in global fallout, except for the most eastern station. The 239,240Pu/137Cs ratios in the South Pacific tend to be higher than that in the North Pacific. The relationships between anthropogenic radionuclides and oceanographic parameters such as salinity and nutrients were examined. The 137Cs concentrations in the western South Pacific (the Tasman Sea) and the eastern South Pacific were negatively correlated with the phosphate concentration, whereas there is no correlation between the 137Cs and nutrients concentrations in the South Pacific subtropical gyre. The mutual relationships between anthropogenic radionuclides and oceanographic parameters are important for better understanding of transport processes of anthropogenic radionuclides and their fate in the South Pacific.     

The transfer of strontium-90 and caesium-137 to milk in a dairy herd grazing near a major nuclear installation

A field investigation of the transfer of artificially produced radionuclides in the pasture--cow--milk pathway has been made at a farm close to the nuclear fuel reprocessing installation at Sellafield on the north-west coast of England. This paper reports results from analyses of samples collected during 1981, reports transfers coefficients for 90Sr and 137Cs from various types of feed to milk, and discusses factors that affect the transfer of these radionuclides. It is shown that during 1981 a large proportion of the 90Sr and 137Cs consumed by cattle grazing near Sellafield was derived from activity deposited in previous years. Transfer coefficients to milk, Fm, have been derived which are within the ranges of those observed in tracer and fallout studies. There are significant seasonal changes in transfer. For 90Sr, values of Fm between 9 X 10(-4)d 1(-1) and 4 X 10(-3)d 1(-1) have been obtained. It is concluded that this large range arises because daily intakes of 90Sr by the herd during the winter months are lower (by a factor of about 3) than intakes during the summer months and that the concentration of 90Sr in milk is not in equilibrium with intake, that is, the concentration of 90Sr in milk is maintained both by recent intakes and by remobilisation of activity that has been accumulated in bone from earlier intakes. For 137Cs, values of Fm between 3 X 10(-3)d 1(-1) and 9 X 10(-3)d 1(-1) have been obtained. It is concluded that this range most probably occurs because during the summer months, when the cows are grazing, a substantial proportion of the 137Cs intake is associated with soil on the surface of herbage and that, in this form, the 137Cs is less available for uptake from the digestive tract of the cows.     

Retrospective determination of 137Cs specific activity distribution in spruce bark and bark aggregated transfer factor in forests on the scale of the Czech Republic ten years after the Chernobyl accident

The ¹³⁷Cs specific activities (mean 32 Bq kg⁻¹) were determined in spruce bark samples that had been collected at 192 sampling plots throughout the Czech Republic in 1995, and were related to the sampling year. The ¹³⁷Cs specific activities in spruce bark correlated significantly with the ¹³⁷Cs depositions in areas affected by different precipitation sums operating at the time of the Chernobyl fallout in 1986. The ratio of the ¹³⁷Cs specific activities in bark and of the ¹³⁷Cs deposition levels yielded bark aggregated transfer factor T_ag about 10.5 × 10⁻³ m⁻² kg⁻¹. Taking into account the residual specific activities of ¹³⁷Cs in bark 20 Bq kg⁻¹ and the available pre-Chernobyl data on the ¹³⁷Cs deposition loads on the soil surface in the Czech Republic, the real aggregated transfer factor after and before the Chernobyl fallout proved to be T*_ag = 3.3 × 10⁻³ m⁻² kg⁻¹ and T**_ag = 4.0 × 10⁻³ m⁻² kg⁻¹, respectively. The aggregated transfer factors T*_ag for ¹³⁷Cs and spruce bark did not differ significantly in areas unequally affected by the ¹³⁷Cs fallout in the Czech Republic in 1986, and the figures for these aggregated transfer factors were very similar to the mean bark T_ag values published from the extensively affected areas near Chernobyl. The magnitude of the ¹³⁷Cs aggregated transfer factors for spruce bark for the pre-Chernobyl and post-Chernobyl period in the Czech Republic was also very similar. The variability in spruce bark acidity caused by the operation of local anthropogenic air pollution sources did not significantly influence the accumulation and retention of ¹³⁷Cs in spruce bark. Increasing elevation of the bark sampling plots had a significant effect on raising the remaining ¹³⁷Cs specific activities in bark in areas affected by precipitation at the time when the plumes crossed, because the sums of this precipitation increased with elevation (covariable).