A theory of the environmental stress cracking of polyethylene

It is proposed that the environmental stress cracking of polyethylene is caused by stress-induced swelling and plasticization of certain favourably oriented amorphous regions in polyethylene. The criteria for stress-induced swelling together with the criteria for little swelling at zero stress show that a vigorous stress cracking agent will have a solubility parameter close to that of polyethylene and a large molar volume. Some detergents fit into this category.     

Modeling of moisture‐induced stress in PMMA: A simple approach to consider sorption behavior in FEM

Moisture‐induced stresses in amorphous thermoplastics are studied in detail using the finite element method (FEM). The approach is based on the coefficient of moisture expansion which is derived from the sorption behavior (i.e., changes of mass, density and elastic properties). The required model parameters were obtained by isothermal diffusion and swelling experiments at different levels of relative humidity at room temperature. In the analysis, the evolutions of moisture‐induced stresses in a model system have been analyzed, i.e., drying sheets of poly(methyl methacrylate). The calculated stresses during drying are discussed with regards to the sorption models. Results indicate that these computational models are essential in capturing the accurate moisture‐induced stress. Finally, the simulation results were verified by three‐point bending. The implemented method shows the potential to predict environmental stress cracking due to humidity by FEM. This is important for the improved design of plastics parts. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 57:3–12, 2017. © 2016 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Modeling of coal swelling induced by water vapor adsorption

Gas adsorption-induced coal swelling is a well-know phenomenon. Coal swelling or shrinkage by adsorption or desorption of water vapor has not been well understood but has significant implications on gas drainage process for underground coal mining and for primary and enhanced coalbed methane production. Decreased matrix moisture content leads to coal shrinkage and thus the change of cleat porosity and permeability under reservoir conditions. Unlike gas adsorption in coal which usually forms a single layer of adsorbed molecules, water vapor adsorption in the coal micropores forms multilayer of adsorbed molecules. In this work, a model has been developed to describe the coal swelling strain with respect to the amount of moisture intake by the coal matrix. The model extended an energy balance approach for gas adsorption-induced coal swelling to water vapor adsorption-induced coal swelling, assuming that only the first layer of adsorbed molecules of the multilayer adsorption changes the surface energy, which thus causes coal to swell. The model is applied to describe the experimental swelling strain data measured on an Australian coal. The results show good agreement between the model and the experimental data.     

The role of surfactant structure and monoethanolamine in the environmental stress cracking of polycarbonate

The critical strains required to initiate cracking of polycarbonate exposed to a number of poly(oxyethylene)ethoxylate surfactants were determined. Solubility parameters of the surfactants were calculated from knowledge of the molecular structure. A model proposed by Jacques and Wyzgoski that uses the square of the solubility parameter difference of the surfactant and polycarbonate and the surfactant molar volume was determined to be useful for predicting critical strains for polycarbonate. A major assumption in this model is that stress cracking is related to swelling or plasticization of the polymer by the cracking agent, which ultimately leads to the polymer's failure. However, the model does not predict the observed strong stress cracking of polycarbonate by monoethanolamine. In this investigation it was determined that polycarbonate is chemically degraded by monoethanolamine. This degradation is sufficient to initiate stress cracking at lower strains than would otherwise be predicted by solubility parameter and molar volume concepts. With the knowledge obtained from this investigation, it is possible to predict which poly(oxyethylene)ethoxylate surfactants are stress cracking agents for polycarbonate.     

COMPRESSION ANALYSIS OF DEHYDRATED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

ABSTRACT

The textural properties of apple, banana, carrot and potato were experimentally determined by uniaxial compressive tests of cylindrical specimens at a constant deformation rate of 5mm/min. Compression tests were performed, following air drying, at various moisture contents ranging from 0.2 to 6 kg/kg db. The tests were performed using a universal texture testing machine and simple mathematical equations were used to correlate the maximum experimental stress and the corresponding strain to the moisture content. It was shown that the maximum stress decreases as the moisture content decreases, until a critical moisture content of 1.8 kg water/kg dry solids. Further removal of water tends to increase the maximum stress. The maximum experimental strain was found to increase as water was removed. The stress-strain data of compression test were modelled using a simple mathematical model, containing parameters such as the maximum stress (ow), the maximum strain (dim), the elastic parameter (E) and the viscoelastic exponent (p). The effect of the moisture content on the compressive behavior of dried materials was introduced through its effect on the model parameters. The shift in compression behavior at 1.8 kg water/kg solids leads to the conclusion that there is an important change of structure at this moisture content.     

Influence of Interfacial Shear Stress on First-Matrix Cracking Stress in Ceramic-Matrix Composites

The first-matrix cracking stress and fiber-matrix interfacial shear stress were measured in zircon-matrix composites uniaxially reinforced with either uncoated or BN-coated silicon carbide filaments to study the role of intentional changes in interfacial shear stress on first-matrix cracking stress. The first-matrix cracking stress was measured by mechanical tests performed in either tension or flexure, and the filament-matrix interfacial shear stress was measured by a fiber pushout test. The first-matrix cracking stress was independent of the measured interfacial shear stress and did not conform to the predictions of a number of energy-based micromechanics models. In contrast, the first-matrix cracking stress showed a good correlation with the first-matrix cracking strain, which is hypothesized to be a more realistic criterion for first-matrix cracking in this class of filament-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites.     

Temperature dependent first matrix cracking stress model for the unidirectional fiber reinforced ceramic composites

Based on a kind of equivalence between heat energy and fracture energy, assuming that there is a constant maximum storage of energy that includes both heat energy and fracture energy, a new temperature dependent fracture surface energy model is developed. Using the new model and the classical ACK theory, a temperature dependent first matrix cracking stress model is obtained for the fiber reinforced ceramic composites. According to the model, the temperature dependent first matrix cracking stress of materials can be easily predicted using some basic material parameters such as matrix fracture surface energy and Young’s modulus. The model is verified by comparison with experimental data of SiC fiber reinforced reaction-bonded Si₃N₄ composites at different temperatures. Good agreement is obtained between predicted and experimental data of first matrix cracking stress. The dependency of first matrix cracking stress on fracture surface energy and interfacial shear strength is systematically analyzed.     

Critical stress of high‐density polyethylene during stress and photo‐oxidative aging

The long‐term photo‐oxidative aging behavior of high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) under different tensile stress was studied using a stress‐aging apparatus. The aging behavior was investigated through the methods of the surface morphology observation, gel content measurement, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and creep behavior. It was found that stress has influence on the development of cracks and stress induces cracking through creep deformation. With increasing stress, the cracking time decreases in a reversed S‐shape curve way, and there is a critical stress near 7 MPa where the cracking time has a maximum decreasing rate. Meanwhile, the creep deformation increases rapidly when the stress exceeds the critical stress. The critical stress of HDPE is about 20–25% of breaking strength, and HDPE with low comonomer content has good dimensional stability when the stress is less than the critical stress, while HDPE with high comonomer content has a good performance when the stress exceeds the critical stress. This study may be useful for the rational selection of HDPE for the sheath material of bridge cable. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 55:2277–2284, 2015. © 2015 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Bonding in cotton fiber from formaldehyde-free crosslinks

Cotton fabric was crosslinked with five agents, three of which were prepared form formaldehyde and two of which were formaldehyde-free. The formaldehyde-free agents produced less bonding between layers in the laminated microstructure of the cotton fiber. One agent, 4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone, gave no evidence of any interlayer bonding. All five agents gave the same relationship between wrinkle recovery angle and molar substitution on the cotton up to moderate recovery angles, but only agents based on formaldehyde gave higher wrinkle recovery angles with additional reaction. Intralayer crosslinking did not reduce absorptivity, as shown by moisture regain and dye receptivity, but did restrict swelling in cupriethylenediamine hydroxide to the same extent as combined interlayer and intralayer crosslinking. The decrease in extensibility of treated fabric with increasing wrinkle recovery angle was the same with all agents. These results indicate the regions of the fiber that are important for each of these properties.     

The stress cracking of polyamides by metal salts. Part I. Metal halides

The stress cracking of polyamides (nylons) by a number of metal salts, in aqueous and nonaqueous solutions, has been investigated. Many metal halides and halide-like salts were found to be active stress-cracking agents, while metal acetates and sulfates were inactive. Zinc chloride was found to be most active, and its activity was compared with other metal halides. Using a recording tensometer, time to crack initiation, time to crack-through and time to rupture were determined. These parameters were found to be dependent on temperature, moisture content of the nylon, concentration of the cracking agent and level of stress. High values of all these factors favored rapid cracking. Cracking parameters were shown to be mainly independent of the surface geometry of the nylon and the hydrogen ion concentration of the cracking agent. Metal halides did not appear to cause any chain scission in the nylon and stress cracking was not due to hydrolysis or metal-ion catalysed hydrolysis.     

Bottom design of carbonated soft drink poly(ethylene terephthalate) bottle to prevent solvent cracking

The use of a petaloid shape for the bottom design for carbonated PET bottles is widespread. Through this study, the causes of bottom cracking were investigated and a novel petaloid bottom was designed. The variations of the physical properties of PET according to the stretch ratio were examined and the stretch ratios in the blown bottle were analyzed. Cracking phenomena of the bottom were observed by a solvent‐cracking test. The effective stress and the maximum principal stress in a carbonated bottle were analyzed by computer simulation. It was concluded that the bottom crack occurs because of not only the insufficient strength of material due to the insufficient stretch of PET but also to the coarse design of the petaloid shape. The highest maximum principal stress occurred at the valley in the petaloid bottom of the bottle and this strongly affected the cracking in the bottom. The petaloid shape was redesigned to minimize the maximum principal stress, and this resulted in increasing the crack resistance. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 88: 1145–1152, 2003     

混凝土内部湿度场与自约束应力场的研究

为防治混凝土自约束作用导致的开裂现象,对混凝土内部湿度场和自约束应力场开展了研究。通过位移传感器、温湿度传感器对不同强度、养护条件下的混凝土收缩、内部温度和湿度进行测试。之后,通过理论推导,建立混凝土内部湿度、应变与内部湿度关系的理论计算模型。研究表明,混凝土内部湿度随着水泥水化作用和干燥作用的增强而降低。混凝土湿度扩散系数是表征其内部湿度的函数,随着与干燥面的间距增加,混凝土内部湿度扩散系数增大。混凝土的收缩变形与内部湿度之间存在显著的相关性,计算模型与试验结果拟合良好。混凝土内部湿度场的存在导致了应变梯度的存在,进而使混凝土内部产生自约束应力。相同环境条件下,高强混凝土内部自约束应力高于普通强度混凝土。     

聚合物剪切流动取向应力-应变关系实验研究

采用熔体流动速率(MFR)仪研究了聚丙烯(PP)材料在剪切流动中大分子链取向应力与应变关系模型。通过测定口模挤出物胀大比,依据Poiseuille定律计算得出材料在不同条件下的第一法向应力差;引入相关聚合物充模取向力学行为理论模型,考虑到相关模型表征了聚合物充模的瞬态过程,简化起见,以材料MFR代替模型中的应变张量;采用最小二乘与数据拟合理论求得相关模型常量,得出PP材料的流动取向应力–应变定量关系式。实验验证结果显示,线弹性模型和高弹性模型的应力最大平均理论误差分别为11.57%和10.95%,最小平均误差分别为9.60%和5.68%,均具有较好的适配性,为后续相关模型理论的定量表征提供了实验依据。     

Drying of Granular Ceramic Films: I, Effect of Processing Variables on Cracking Behavior

Drying of binder-free granular ceramic films was studied to identify processing variables which affect their cracking behavior. Films were prepared from electrostatically stabilized suspensions of α-alumina in water. A critical cracking thickness (CCT) was determined, above which films would spontaneously crack during drying. The effects of particle size, liquid surface tension, drying rate, dispersion stability, and sedimentation time were evaluated by a statistical design methodology. The CCT for films prepared on glass substrates was used as a measure of the effect of each variable on cracking. The statistically significant variables were particle size, dispersion stability, and sedimentation time. The effect of substrate constraint was also studied by producing films on a Teflon substrate and a pool of liquid Hg. The observations were consistent with a capillary formed tensile stress acting on the entire film rather than differential stress generated by a moisture gradient over the film thickness.     

X-COOL凉爽纤维及其纱线的基本性能

通过对X-COOL凉爽纤维的微观形态结构、单纱强力以及纱线条干均匀度、捻度、回潮率和含水率、耐酸碱等性能的测试发现:X-COOL凉爽纤维纵向为有凹槽的圆柱状,横截面为X形;XCOOL凉爽纱线的断裂伸长较大,单纱断裂强力超过250 c N;捻度较低;回潮率和含水率均较低;耐酸不耐碱,尤其不耐强碱。     

The effects of filler content on cure and mechanical properties of dichlorocarbene modified styrene butadiene rubber/carbon black composites

A study has been carried out on the curing characteristics and mechanical properties of carbon black filled dichlorocarbene modified styrene butadiene rubber (DCSBR). Processing characteristics such as optimum cure time and maximum torque increases with increasing of the concentration of carbon black in DCSBR whereas scorch time decreases. The mechanical properties and resistance of the vulcanizate towards thermal, flame and oil resistance have been carried out. Variation of bound rubber content of carbon black filled DCSBR and the influence of the extracting temperature on the bound rubber content was investigated and its activation energy was calculated from the Arrhenius plot. The reinforcing nature of the filler was assessed from stress strain and swelling data. The enhancement in mechanical properties was supported by data on the increased content of crosslink density in these samples obtained from swelling and stress strain analysis. The results of the studies indicate that carbon black can be used as a good reinforcing filler for DCSBR.     

Stress fissuring and process duration during rough rice convective drying affected by continuous and stepwise changes in air temperature

During rough rice drying, gradients of moisture content and glass transition temperature cause thermal and mechanical stresses inside the kernel. These stresses eventuate to kernel fissuring during the milling process. In this study, convective drying of Hashemi (long grain) rough rice was applied to investigate the effect of continuous and stepwise changes in air temperature on stress cracking index and process duration. Toward this objective, the concepts of glass transition and analysis of moisture contents distributions within the rice kernel were determined through a numerical modeling of mass transfer. For stepwise temperature change, the drying experiments were conducted at temperatures above the glass transition temperature. Results indicated that the stress cracking index under stepwise temperature change conditions (i.e., within the rubbery state) was reduced compared to the continuous mode probably due to a drip in the moisture content gradients created inside the kernels during the drying process. Moreover, the drying duration significantly was shortened when the kernel was dried within the rubbery state due to faster diffusion moisture within the kernel.     

Investigation of hygroscopic properties in electronic packages using molecular dynamics simulation

Moisture-induced package failures such as interfacial delamination and pop-corn cracking are common failure phenomena that occur during the solder reflow process in the semiconductor industry. Therefore, the hygroscopic properties of the package materials are crucial factors in the reliability of electronic packaging products. In this work, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was performed to study the hygroscopic properties, including diffusivity and swelling strain, of epoxy materials with respect to temperature and moisture concentration. Hygroscopic material properties predicted by MD are discussed and compared with the experimental data.     

Drying stress of yttria-stabilized-zirconia slurry on a metal substrate

Aqueous yttria-stabilized-zirconia (YSZ) nano-particle slurries (termed as nano-slurries later) were cast on metal substrates to form wet coatings. Stress development was measured using a substrate reflection method, coupled with drying kinetics measurements and coating structure examination. Lateral drying occurred and was controlled by the viscosity of the slurry. Tensile stress was generated due to constrained shrinkage of the wet coating when the slurry became saturated with water, starting from the coating edge when the solid concentration reached a certain level. As the saturated region extended to the centre, the stress increased to the maximum, then dropped quickly to zero due to cracking and delamination. Addition of micro-sized particles to the nano-slurry resulted in reduction of the peak stress while no apparent cracks were formed during drying. In addition, non-zero residual stress remained after drying, suggesting good bonding between the coating and the substrate.     

Evaluation of Soybean Seedcoat Cracking During Drying:PART I. Using Drying Tests

In this study, seedcoat cracking during heated air drying was investigated in five varieties of Minnesota grown soybeans. Effects of initial moisture contents, drying temperatures and time on cracking levels were evaluated. Digital image analysis (DIA) was employed to measure initial sizes and shapes of soybeans in order to evaluate the influence of physical properties of mature seeds on cracking frequency.

Seedcoat cracking rates increased significantly with increase in initial moisture content of the soybeans. drying temperature and time. Rapid water loss at higher initial moisture contents led to greater seedcoat cracking. Variety.growing location. and sizc of soybeans had significant influence on seedcoat cracking. Statistical analysis indicates that interactions between various factors had significant influence on seedcoat cracking.