Optimizing Quality of Frankfurters Containing Oat Bran and Added Water

Chicken frankfurters fat content was decreased by using various levels of oat bran and added water and evaluated for quality. Frankfurters with higher levels of oat bran had less expressible moisture and required higher shear stress to break. There were no difference in springiness among frankfurters made with different levels of oat bran; however, those with higher oat bran were rated less juicy and more grainy by taste panelists. The addition of water increased intensities of strain, springiness and juiciness, but decreased shear stress and hardness values. Contour plots showed optimum formulation at <2% oat bran 20% of added water.     

EFFECT OF CARRAGEENAN ON PROCESSING AND QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS

Three types of carrageenan (K, I, K+I) × 4 levels (0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0%) were evaluated with a complete factorial design to characterize the effect of carrageenans on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein). l-Carrageenan at 0.5–1.0% level appeared to be more beneficial for the production of low-fat frankfurters. It reduced (P<0.05) the hardness of the skin and contributed to a softer (P<0.05) product and higher overall acceptability. Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat) manufactured with I-carrageenan (IC) or in combination with finely ground toasted bread (TB), isolated soy protein (ISP) and pork skin (PSK), were compared to high-fat (27% fat, 11% protein) and to low-fat (9% fat, 13% protein) control frankfurters prepared with 3.5% potato starch (PS), as well as with commercial frankfurters (25% fat, 11.6% protein, 4.5% starch). Frankfurters with IC had higher (P<0.05) moisture, softer (P<0.05) skin and the highest (P<0.05) separation of gelatin. However, textural properties and overall acceptability were similar (P>0.05) to commercial and high-fat control frankfurters. Addition of TB had no significant effect. Use of ISP and PSK improved (P<0.05) the water-binding capacity but negatively affected the overall acceptability of frankfurters.     

Potato Starch and Flour in Frankfurters: Effect on Chemical and Sensory Properties, and Total Plate Counts

Potato starch and flour were examined as possible constituents in frankfurter formulations. Frankfurters manufactured with 3% potato starch or 1.5% potato starch plus 1.5% potato flour in place of 3% wheat flour normally used as a binder, and stored at 4–5°C for 28 days did not differ significantly in percent shrink, water, protein, fat, ash or salt. Residual nitrite levels decreased during the storage period. Total plate counts reflect residual nitrite levels since the frankfurters (3% starch) with the lowest nitrite concentration also had the greatest number of bacteria (6.4 × 10⁶/g) on day 28. Frankfurters formulated with 1.5% potato starch plus 1.5% potato flour were rated more tender and more juicy than those made with 3% potato starch (P≤0.05 and P≤0.01) and 3% wheat flour (P≤0.01 and P≤0.01), respectively. Fresh potato starch and wheat flour franks did not differ from each other in either characteristic but after one week's storage the potato starch samples were rated more tender (P≤0.05) and more juicy (P≤0.01). Less force was required to shear the frankfurters formulated with 3% potato starch.     

Effects of Preblending, Reduced Fat and Salt Levels on Frankfurter Characteristics

Frankfurters were manufactured from preblended (PB) or nonpreblended (NPB) meats to contain traditional and reduced levels of salt (1.5, 2.0, or 2.5%) and/or fat (17%= low; 25%= high). Emulsions stability, color, Kramer shear and palatability were evaluated. Salt had a positive effect on emulsion stability (p<0.05). Low-fat frankfurters were darker, redder, less blue in color, drier and more resistant to shear than high-fat frankfurters. Low-fat franks containing 1.5% salt had a softer texture than those containing 2.0 or 2.5% salt. Preblending did not affect textural properties. With modification of the formulations, low fat-low salt franks can be manufactured.     

Emulsion Stability and Sensory Quality of Beef Frankfurters Produced at Different Fat or Peanut Oil Levels

Frankfurters were produced at 12, 20 and 29% fat levels using beef fat or 60% substitution with peanut oil. Less emulsion stability, lower smokehouse yield and lower sensory juiciness scores were found as final fat content of beef frankfurters was lowered to 12%. Firmness, darkening of external color, and flavor intensity were enhanced in the low fat product. Frankfurters with 60% fat as peanut oil exhibited comparable emulsion stability and sensory quality parameters with no rancid flavor development over a period of 6 weeks at 4°C. They were as acceptable to sensory panels as the 29% beef fat frankfurters. Substitution of 60% of the beef fat with peanut oil resulted in a product with significantly (P < 0.05) less cholesterol content.     

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAT BATTERS AND FRANKFURTERS CONTAINING WHEAT GERM PROTEIN FLOUR1

Frankfurters were extended with wheat germ protein flour (WGPF) at 3.5, 5.0. and 7.0%. Water added during formulation was increased by 2% for every 1% of WGPF added. Batters containing WGPF had higher pH and adhesiveness values. Viscosities of the batters were not affected by addition of WGPF. Batters containing WGPF had lower cooking losses, and lower percent water and fat separated. Positive effects, such as lower cooking losses, higher processing yields and lower percent fat, were not consistent at levels of WGPF beyond 3.5%, probably because of higher levels of added water. Total yields of the samples containing WGPF were higher than those of control samples. No differences were observed in protein and amino acid contents of samples. Lower fat content was found in samples extended with 7.0% WGPF. Frankfurters containing WGPF had lower shear force and firmness values. Differences in color of frankfurters were also observed.     

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED WITH MODIFIED BEEF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

A 3 fat level (8%, 16% and 24%, finished weight basis) × 5 modified connective tissue level (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%, meat block basis) complete factorial design was employed to characterize frankfurters manufactured with modified beef connective tissue (MCT). Thermal processing yields improved 2–3% with the addition of 20% or more MCT. Level of MCT did not affect average consumer cook yields. Kramer Shear parameters were higher with higher levels of MCT. Frankfurter cohesiveness declined with an increase in MCT. A consumer panel found low-fat frankfurters to be less desirable in almost all traits than high fat products. Frankfurters with 10–20% MCT were as desirable as controls (0% MCT). Frankfurter external and internal color was lighter as level of MCT increased. Frankfurters with MCT were rated as desirable by a consumer sensory panel, and had color and yields similar to higher fat products.     

Cure Levels, Processing Methods and Meat Source Effects on Low-fat Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured from lean meats (100% beef and 50:50 beef-pork) to contain reduced levels of fat (about 1.3%). A curing solutibn was added to yield 160% of fresh meat weight. Three processing methods, coarse ground tumbled, fine ground tumbled and fine ground emulsified were used. All products were cooked in live steam to 71°C internal temperature. Product yields, penetrometer values, color, chemical composition, caloric content and added water were evaluated. Emulsified frankfurters from 50:50 beef-pork mixtures at 160% cure had texture similar to conventional product as well as increased (P<0.05) yields, acceptable color and 74% fewer calories.     

Low-fat Frankfurters with Elevated Levels of Water and Oleic Acid

The effects of simultaneous incorporation of maximum allowable levels of water and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) on frankfurter properties were investigated. The formulation changes generally had little effect on processing yield. Frankfurters formulated with HOSO were 180-241% higher in the ratio of total monounsaturated fatty acids to total saturated fatty acids when compared to control products with similar total fat levels. Consumer-panel sensory data and instrumental texture profile data indicated that low-fat (14-16%), high-water, HOSO frankfurters- were as acceptable as control frankfurters with 28% fat (all-animal fat) and did not have the texture problems observed previously with low-fat, HOSO frankfurters without extra added water.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n=25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P<0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5-3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Influence of protein isolate from lupin seeds (Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus) on processing and quality characteristics of frankfurters

Lupin protein isolate (92% protein) from seeds of Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus (LSPI) was used as powder ingredient for the manufacture of frankfurters at levels 0, 1, 2 and 3% of the formulation weight. Additional 1% water was added during batter formulation to each 1% protein used. LSPI increased (P < 0.05) the pH and viscosity of batter and reduced the jelly separation. Increasing the LSPI level resulted in higher (P < 0.05) processing yield and lower (P < 0.05) purge accumulation, redness and visual colour scores and hardness of frankfurters. Significant differences in overall acceptability were not found among the control and frankfurters with 1% and 2% LSPI. Frankfurters with 3% LSPI were judged as unacceptable. Incorporation of LSPI at 1% level either in hydrated form or as stabilizer in pre-emulsified fat improved the processing characteristics and overall acceptability of frankfurters made with LSPI as powder ingredient and did not affect the color and texture.     

Optimizing palm oil and palm stearin utilization for sensory and textural properties of chicken frankfurters

This study was designed to explore the potential of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil (PO) and palm stearin (POs) utilization in chicken frankfurters. A 10 points augmented simplex-centroid design was used to study the effect of chicken fat (CF), PO and POs as well as the interaction of these fats on the emulsion, textural and sensory properties of chicken frankfurters. All frankfurters were formulated to contain approx 25% fat, 52% moisture and 10% protein. No significant difference was found in end chopping temperatures of all meat batters even though the temperature of PO and POs upon incorporation into meat batters was 50°C higher than CF. Strong emulsions were formed as no fluid losses were observed in all the meat batters tested after heating. Texture profiles of the frankfurters containing PO and/or CF were quite similar, but increment of POs raised hardness, chewiness, and shear hardness of the frankfurters. Acceptability of the frankfurters was evaluated using hedonic test. Panelists found no difference in hardness preference between frankfurters made from totally CF and PO, while frankfurters made from POs were rated as hard and brittle. CF was important in determining acceptability of the frankfurters, as reduction of CF in formulation resulted in lower scores in chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall acceptance of the frankfurters. Frankfurters with sensory acceptability comparable to a commercial one were found to comprise of more than 17% CF, and less than 67% PO and 17% POs of the fat blend.     

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CORN GERM AND SOY PROTEINS UTILIZATION IN COMMINUTED MEAT PRODUCTS1

Soy flour (SF), soy concentrate (SC) and corn germ protein flour (CGPF) at 3.5%, or 2% of soy isolate (SI) were incorporated in the formulations of frankfurters. There was no significant differences in proximate composition of frankfurters containing SF, SC. SI, and CGPF. Frankfurters formulated with high plant protein flour had lower cholesterol, and higher protein content than the all-meat control frankfurters. Control frankfurters had lower water holding capacity and higher cooking losses than those containing plant proteins. No significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in textural and color characteristics. Atypical aroma and flavor profiles increased in frankfurters with SF nd CGPF extension.     

Effect of tomato paste and nitrite level on processing and quality characteristics of frankfurters

Fourteen treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) were produced with two levels of sodium nitrite, 0 and 150mg/kg (0.015%), and seven levels (0%,2%,6%,8%,12% and 16%) of tomato paste with 12% soluble solids The higher the tomato paste level the higher the preference of consumers for frankfurters based on their colour. Frankfurters with 16% tomato paste had a sour taste while those with 12% tomato paste were the most acceptable. In a 2nd experiment three treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) were produced with 0, 50 and 100mg/kg of sodium nitrite and 12% tomato paste and a fourth (control) with only 150mg/kg sodium nitrite. Treatments with 12% tomato paste had lower (p<0.05) pH values and residual nitrite, and higher (p<0.05) thiobarbituric acid values, lightness and yellowness than control. Frankfurters with reduced levels of sodium nitrite (50 and 100mg/kg) and 12% tomato paste had the highest (p<0.05) redness. Storage time affected (p<0.05) all quality attributes. The nitrites added to frankfurters can be reduced from 150mg/kg to 100mg/kg in combination with 12% tomato paste without any negative effect on the quality of the product.     

Low-Fat, High-Moisture Frankfurters: Effects of Temperature and Water during Extended Mixing

Frankfurters containing 15% fat and 25% added water were produced using conventional practice or minced meat batters were mixed for 30 min (extended mixing, EM) at 2 or 16°C with all or 30% of the formulation water. EM had minimal effects on yield, purge, and texture. Products were darker and less yellow than non-EM frankfurters. The lower mixing temperature resulted in firmer (P < 0.05) frankfurters. However, mixing temperature did not affect other properties. Time of water addition affected most properties. Frankfurters from treatments mixed with 100% of formulation water were firmer, darker, redder, less yellow, and required more extension to fracture.     

Calcium Fortified, Reduced Fat Beef Emulsion Product

Characteristics were investigated on a 15%/25%, fat/added water beef frankfurter supplemented with calcium (calcium carbonate or calcium-citrate-malate complex, CCM) to meet 25, 50, 75 or 100% of adult U.S. RDA in one 45g frankfurter. Controls contained 15%/25% or 30%/10% fat/added water. Compared to controls, calcium addition did not reduce yield although batters containing CCM had lower viscosity (P<0.05). During storage, pH of calcium added frankfurters increased about 0.35 units. Frankfurters formulated with 100% levels for calcium were least acceptable to sensory panelists. Frankfurters were softer and had less springiness and chewiness (P<0.05) when supplemented with 100% levels for calcium.     

Protein Oxidation in Frankfurters with Increasing Levels of Added Rosemary Essential Oil: Effect on Color and Texture Deterioration

The development of protein oxidation as assessed by the total carbonyl content and its influence on color and texture deterioration during the refrigerated storage (+4 °C/60 d) of frankfurters, were studied. The effect of the addition of a rosemary essential oil at different levels (150, 300, and 600 ppm) on the protein oxidative stability of the frankfurters was also evaluated. Frankfurters with no added essential oil were used as controls. The amount of carbonyls from protein oxidation significantly increased during refrigerated storage, and this increase was significantly higher in control frankfurters than in those treated with 300 and 600 ppm. Rosemary essential oil at levels of 300 and 600 ppm successfully protected the heme molecule from degradation and significantly inhibited the increase of nonheme iron (NHI) in refrigerated stored frankfurters. Color changes were directly related to oxidation processes because frankfurters with added antioxidants (300 and 600 ppm) suffered less color modifications than the controls. The addition of rosemary essential oil enhanced texture characteristics of frankfurters by reducing hardness, adhesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, and controlling the lost of elasticity during refrigeration. Statistically significant correlations were calculated between protein oxidation and instrumentally measured parameters, suggesting that the alteration of protein functionality caused by oxidation likely affected color and texture characteristics of frankfurters.     

Properties of Frankfurters Made From Electrically Stimulated Beef

Frankfurters (3 replications of 4.54 kg meat batches) were conventionally made. Paired sides from beef were used for control (NES) and electrically stimulated (ES) meats (clods, flanks and plates). All-beef frankfurters (100% ES beef or 100% NES beef) and beef-pork frankfurters (80% ES beef-20% pork or 80% NES beef-20% pork) were made. The pork was not electrically stimulated. Proximate composition within cut of beef (plate, flank, clod) was not affected (P > 0.05) by ES. However, ES clods had (numerically) greater percentages of expressible juice loss, greater percentages of salt-soluble protein and lower percentages of juice loss during cooking than did NES clods (not statistically different). Use of ES beef alone or in combination with 20% pork did not affect external visual color, off-flavor, overall desirability or processing shrinkage of frankfurters. ES may affect certain properties (raw and cooked muscles) as measured in the laboratory, but when these ES muscles are used to make frankfurters, no real advantages or disadvantages were suggested by this study.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n = 25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P < 0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5–3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Acceptability of low-fat frankfurters as influenced by the feeding of elevated levels of monounsaturated fats to growing-finishing swine

The effects of high levels of oleic acid in the diet on the physical, chemical and sensory traits of frankfurters were examined. Frankfurters were formulated at three fat levels (10, 20 and 25%) from pork trimmings from each dietary treatment. The control frankfurters were the most springy, firm, flavorful and palatable and had the most intense flavor (P < 0·05). However, low-fat frankfurters produced from the high-oleate treatments were comparable to the control in all sensory characteristics (P > 0·05). The 10 and 25% fat frankfurters were rated highest and lowest, respectively, for juiciness, springiness, firmness, flavor, flavor intensity and overall palatability (P < 0·05). Sensory panelists detected off-flavors in the 25% fat frankfurters more frequently than in the 10% fat frankfurters (P < 0·05). 2-Thiobarbituric acid values were not affected by treatment and were acceptable after storage at 2°C for 24 weeks (P < 0·05).