Sex differences in the genetic and environmental influences on childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior.

Sex differences in the genetic and environmental influences on childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior were examined in a large community sample of 6,383 adult male, female, and opposite-sex twins. Retrospective reports of childhood conduct disorder (prior to 18 years of age) were obtained when participants were approximately 30 years old, and lifetime reports of adult antisocial behavior (antisocial behavior after 17 years of age) were obtained 8 years later. Results revealed that either the genetic or the shared environmental factors influencing childhood conduct disorder differed for males and females (i.e., a qualitative sex difference), but by adulthood, these sex-specific influences on antisocial behavior were no longer apparent. Further, genetic and environmental influences accounted for proportionally the same amount of variance in antisocial behavior for males and females in childhood and adulthood (i.e., there were no quantitative sex differences). Additionally, the stability of antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood was slightly greater for males than females. Though familial factors accounted for more of the stability of antisocial behavior for males than females, genetic factors accounted for the majority of the covariation between childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior for both sexes. The genetic influences on adult antisocial behavior overlapped completely with the genetic influences on childhood conduct disorder for both males and females. Implications for future twin and molecular genetic studies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences and variations in body attitudes.

Tested several hypotheses about the relationship between body attitude and sex membership with 89 male and 80 female undergraduates. 3 separate body attitudes corresponding to Osgood's 3 attitudinal dimensions were measured by the semantic differential on 30 different body concepts. Results indicate that women not only like their bodies better than men but also have a more clearly differentiated notion of what they like and dislike about their bodies. Men on the other hand judge their bodies as more potent and more active than women. (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in assertive behavior: An empirical investigation.

Assertion training for women has been justified on the basis that women are generally less assertive than men or that women have unique problems in being assertive. A review of the literature for sex-related data from self-report measures of assertion indicated that without exception males report higher frequencies of assertive behavior than females. The means are significantly different, however, for only 4 (29%) of the 14 samples reviewed. Differential responding for males and females on individual items from the Adult Self Expression Scale was investigated using 4 samples of a total of 294 male and 408 female Ss. Men reported themselves as more assertive than women on items dealing with bosses and supervisors. Men also reported themselves as being more outspoken when stating opinions and as taking the initiative more readily in social contacts with members of the opposite sex. Women, on the other hand, reported themselves as more assertive in expressing love, affection, and compliments, as well as expressing anger to one's parents. The question of how these sex differences in assertive behavior are affected in assertion-training groups composed entirely of women is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in toddlers' behavior and parental reaction.

Observed 12 families, each consisting of 1 toddler-aged child, a mother, and a father in their own homes. 6 children were boys, and 6 were girls. Boys played with blocks and manipulated objects significantly more than girls. Girls asked for help, played with dolls, danced, and dressed up significantly more than boys. Both parents gave girls more praise and more criticism than boys, and both parents joined boys' play more often than girls' play. However, boys were left to play alone more than girls. Comparisons between parents' answers on a child-rearing questionnaire were made with the home observations. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the interpersonal behavior of married couples.

Self- and observer reports were used to assess performance frequencies of 800 acts in a sample of 93 married couples over a 3-mo period. Although numerous sex differences were found with respect to each data source, only 69 acts showed significant sex differences across both data sources. Subsequently, these 69 acts were factor analyzed separately for the 2 data sources to identify the major dimensions of sex difference. Four clear and comparable factors emerged from the 2 analyses: Coercive-Manipulative, Communal, Flashy Attire, and Initiative. The California Psychological Inventory Femininity scale correlated highly with most composites for the total sample, suggesting considerable predictive power in identifying dimensions of sex difference. The Extended Personality Attribute Questionnaire scales correlated strongly with the factor composites within sex, but less so for the total sample. Results are discussed in terms of strategies for assessing sex differences in interpersonal behavior, alternative foci of convenience for different masculinity and femininity scales, and the use of multiple data sources to transcend single-source limitations. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in perceptions of desirable body shape.

Using a set of 9 figure drawings arranged from very thin to very heavy figures, 248 male and 227 female undergraduates indicated their current figure, their ideal figure, the figure that they felt would be most attractive to the opposite sex, and the opposite sex figure to which they would be most attracted. For men, the current, ideal, and most attractive figures were almost identical. For women, the current figure was heavier than the most attractive figure, which was heavier than the ideal figure. Both men and women erred in estimating what the opposite sex would find attractive. Men thought women would like a heavier stature than females reported they like, and women thought men would like women thinner than men reported they like. Results suggest that, overall, men's perceptions serve to keep them satisfied with their figures, whereas women's perceptions place pressure on them to lose weight. The sex differences reported are probably related to the greater incidence of dieting, anorexia, and bulimia among American women than among American men. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in anxiety behavior in rats: role of gonadal hormones

These experiments examined the role of gonadal hormones at both the organizational and activational time periods on sex differences in plus-maze behavior. In the first experiment, adult female Long-Evans rats were found to spend more time on the open arms of the plus maze than adult males, indicating less anxious behavior. In the second experiment, male and female subjects received a neonatal treatment (chemical castration with flutamide or tamoxifen, vehicle injection, or no injection) and a prepubertal treatment (gonadectomy, sham surgery, or no surgery). Adult females receiving either neonatal tamoxifen or prepubertal ovariectomy spent less time on the open arms than control females, but females who received both treatments were the most defeminized subjects. Males were not affected by the absence of gonadal hormones at either time period. These experiment indicate that female gonadal hormones play an important role both organizationally and activationally in plus-maze behavior. The role of the GABA receptor complex in mediating this effect is discussed. Knowledge of sex differences in plus-maze behavior may help to make this maze a more useful tool in investigating anxiety behavior in rats.     

Sex differences in sustained attention across the adult life span.

We used a life span sample of 18- to 91-year-old men (n?=?176) and women (n?=?108) to investigate sex differences and the effect of age on sex differences in performance and arousal during a 62-min no-memory-demand sensory vigilance task (Mackworth's Clock-Test). We observed sex differences in target response time and on measures of autonomic arousal; women were slower and less aroused than men. A review of the literature, in conjunction with the results of this study, led to our concluding that women are slower to respond to targets than men and that women may tend to detect fewer targets than men only when they are young (18–29 years old). Sex differences in arousal levels were consistent with an arousal explanation of sex differences in response time. However, detection accuracy and false alarm rates were not consistent with sex differences in arousal levels. Sex differences in the time course of vigilance performance were inconsistent. Age did not significantly moderate the sex differences in vigilance decrement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in social behavior: comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology

In rats, copper deficiency leads to low copper metalloenzyme activity, high serum cholesterol, and cardiovascular lesions. In humans, moderately low copper intake may be common, but the consequences remain largely uncertain. The present study examined the effects of copper supplementation (2 mg/d for 4 weeks in a copper/placebo crossover design) in 20 adult men with moderately high plasma cholesterol. End-point measurements were three copper enzyme activities, erythrocyte superoxide dismutase (SOD), plasma ceruloplasmin (Cp), and plasma diamine oxidase (DAO), and three parameters related to the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), plasma cholesterol, plasma lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)], and lag times for very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation in vitro. Although copper had no significant effects on any parameter for the entire study group, it did significantly increase two enzyme activities (SOD and DAO), as well as lipoprotein oxidation lag times, in 10 subjects in the lower half of a median split for precopper values. Thus, copper supplementation appeared to influence some types of measurements in subjects beginning with less than median values.     

Sex differences in social behavior: Are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible?

Examines the competing claims of 2 explanations of sex differences in social behavior: social role theory, and evolutionary psychology. The origin and scope of research on sex differences in social behavior are outlined, and the application of social role theory is discussed. Research that is based on modern sexual selection theory is described, and whether its findings can be explained by social role theory is considered. Findings associated with social role theory are weighted against evolutionary explanations. It is concluded that evolutionary theory accounts much better for the overall pattern of sex differences and for their origins. A coevolutionary approach is proposed to explain cross-cultural consistency in socialization patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in children's altruistic behavior and reputations for helpfulness.

Examined sex differences in altruism by administering reputation and behavioral measures to 279 5th and 6th graders. Ss' reputations for altruism were assessed with teacher ratings and a classroom sociometric task. Altruistic behavior was measured with 6 classroom tasks that provided Ss with opportunities to help other Ss. Girls scored significantly higher than did boys on both reputation tasks and on a composite reputation score. Girls also scored significantly higher than did boys on 2 of the behavioral tasks and on the composite behavioral measure. Thus, although girls were perceived as much more helpful than boys, the behavioral differences were of a lesser magnitude. Results replicate closely those reported by H. Hartshorne et al (1929). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in EEG in adult gonadectomized rats before and after hormonal treatment

EEG activity was recorded from the left and right parietal cortex in adult male and female Wistar rats that were gonadectomized (GNX) after puberty during 2 days without and 3 days with hormonal treatment (either testosterone propionate, 5 alpha-DHT or vehicle in males and progesterone, estradiol benzoate or vehicle in females). In contrast to EEG characteristics reported for intact rats, GNX abolished right over left parietal activation in both sexes and, sex differences in EEG interhemispheric correlation and in theta and delta relative power in the right parietal; additionally GNX males showed higher absolute power than females. Hormonal treatment reestablished interparietal asymmetry in both sexes and a lack of sex differences in absolute power, however, it was not enough to reestablish sex differences in delta and theta proportion in the right parietal nor in interhemispheric correlation. Differential effects were obtained with testosterone propionate and 5 alpha-DHT in males suggesting that activational effects of testosterone on EEG are probably exerted through testosterone or its aromatized metabolites. The results of our study indicate that the activational effects of gonadal steroids after puberty are necessary for maintaining sex differences in the EEG of the adult rat.     

The nature of the influence of speed on adult age differences in cognition.

Two studies were conducted to determine the relations among age, motor speed, perceptual speed, and 3 measures of cognitive performance: study time, decision time, and decision accuracy. Each study involved over 240 adults (all Ss aged 18–87 yrs) who performed a battery of tests, including computer-administered tests of memory, reasoning, and spatial ability. Results indicate that (1) increased age was associated with lower accuracy as well as with longer study time and decision time and (2) some of the relations between age and decision accuracy and between age and decision time appear to be mediated by a slower rate of executing cognitive operations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the use of demand and withdraw behavior in marriage: Examining the social structure hypothesis.

Studies consistently show sex differences in married couples' use of demand and withdraw behavior. The social structure hypothesis proposes that these differences are the result of power differentials between spouses. This study examined the link between 3 aspects of marital power and demanding and withdrawal behavior. Contrary to social structure predictions, results showed that wives did not possess less decision-making ability or access to resources and appeared to exhibit greater situational power (i.e., domineering and dominant behaviors) than did their husbands during problem-solving discussions. Furthermore, the spouse who exhibited the most demands also exhibited the most domineering and dominant behaviors, whereas the spouse who exhibited the most withdrawal exhibited the least domineering and dominant behaviors during problem-solving discussions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the relation of visceral adipose tissue accumulation to total body fatness

With a newly developed short term enzyme linked immunosorbent assay kit (TOYOBO Co.), in which 2 kinds of anti-EPO monoclonal antibodies were used, we assayed EPO concentration in sera from patients with renal failure and hematological disorders. In this report, the EPO data were analysed in relation to serum iron concentrations, with ferritin and UIBC. In the patients with renal failure, there was no significant correlation between EPO concentration and serum iron, ferritin, nor UIBC concentration. On the other hand, in the patients with hematological disorders, there were two types. One was in patients with iron deficiency anemia, whose serum EPO was negatively correlated to serum iron (r = -0.64) and ferritin (r = -0.59), but positively related to UIBC (r = 0.27). The another was the pattern in patients with aplastic anemia, leukemia and MDS, whose serum EPO positively correlated to iron and ferritin but negatively correlated to UIBC. In the patients with aplastic anemia serum EPO had good correlation to serum iron (r = 0.62), ferritin (r = 0.60) and UIBC (r = -0.46). The relationship of EPO to iron in the patients with leukemia (r = 0.54), and EPO to ferritin in the patients with MDS (r = 0.42) show significantly positive correlation coefficient.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Male-female differences and the influence of neonatal and adult testosterone on intraspecies aggression in rats.

Tested Sprague-Dawley male and female albino rats for intraspecies aggression without the use of shock. In the 1st experiment, 6 male pairs showed more biting attacks, offensive sideways movements, and self-grooming than did 6 female pairs; male pairs also showed more stereotyped defensive/submissive behaviors and were wounded more frequently. The 2nd experiment with 103 Ss examined the effects of neonatal castration and testosterone propionate (TP) on fighting. Males castrated at birth attacked other males less frequently than did controls when tested with TP treatment as adults. The TP given at birth to neonatally castrated males restored attacks to control levels. Females given TP as neonates did not differ from either male or female controls. Other aggressive/defensive behaviors, however, did not show this pattern. Results suggest that while the presence of testosterone during a brief postnatal period and during adulthood is necessary for attack behavior to occur, other related behaviors may not be affected in a similar manner. (11/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in learned helplessness: I. Differential debilitation with peer and adult evaluators.

Predicted that sex differences in learned helplessness (attributions of failure to uncontrollable factors) and the impaired performance associated with it would be agent specific. Two experiments were conducted with 105 female and 111 male 4th and 5th graders. Among girls, failure feedback from adults led to little improvement in performance on a series of digit-letter substitution problems, but failure from peers led to immediate and sustained improvement. Among boys, however, failure feedback from adults led to rapid improvement, but failure from peers led to no improvement over trials. Moreover, girls' and boys' attributions for failure varied systematically with the agent of evaluation. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mutual influence in expressive behavior: Adult–adult and infant–adult dyadic interaction.

Reviews literature on the influence of speaker's expressive behaviors on another's behavioral response in adult–adult and infant–adult dyads. Expressive behaviors include noncontent speech variables; indicators of affiliation such as gaze, distance, orientation, and question intimacy; verbal disclosure; body movements; and general indices of involvement. Interspeaker influence includes both interspeaker matching and compensation in overt behavior. Matching predominates in noncontent speech, verbal disclosure, and gaze. Compensatory responses are prompted by question intimacy and proximity. Both reciprocal and compensatory responses show limits, and are attenuated and even reversed by moderator variables associated with person differences and social-normative expectations. Continuities between adult–adult and infant–adult dyads are found for vocalization and gaze. Explanations of expressive social interaction must be flexible enough to account for both compensation and matching as well as the limits to and moderators of these responses. (5? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and species differences in mouse and rat forebrain commissures depend on the method of adjusting for brain size

Sex differences in the forebrain commissures (corpus callosum, hippocampal commissure, and anterior commissure) were examined in B6D2F2 hybrid mice and Sprague-Dawley rats. Twenty-four male-female littermate pairs of mice were perfused at each of 21, 42 and 63 days of age and the midsagittal area of the commissures was measured from en bloc stained tissue. Twenty-two male-female littermate pairs of rats were examined at 110 days of age using the same methods. Male mice had larger bodies than females but no sex differences were found for mouse brain weight or commissure areas. In contrast, a significant sex difference was found for rat body, brain, corpus callosum and hippocampal commissure sizes. Four methods were used to adjust for differences in brain size (ratio, geometric, linear regression, and allometric). When the two species were analysed separately, neither mice nor rats showed significant sex differences in commissure areas relative to brain size if regression or allometric adjustments were made. Even when data from mice and rats were combined into one large group with a wide range of values, no species or sex differences were apparent after adjustments were made for brain size with either the regression or allometric methods. The use of ratios to adjust for differences in overall size is not recommended, especially because this method does not effectively remove the influence of brain size from commissure size; a substantial correlation is often present between the ratio and brain size.