Supervisors' beliefs and subordinates' intrinsic motivation: A behavioral confirmation analysis.

Numerous studies have documented that when supervisors are more supportive of autonomy and less controlling, subordinates demonstrate higher levels of intrinsic motivation. The present research examined the role of supervisors' beliefs about a subordinate's intrinsic or extrinsic motivation in explaining this relation. A teaching paradigm was used in which participants were assigned the role of supervisors or subordinates. Supervisors were given no information regarding the subordinate, told that the subordinate was extrinsically motivated, or told that the subordinate was intrinsically motivated. Results revealed that subordinates who were believed to be intrinsically motivated perceived their supervisor as being significantly more supportive of autonomy, reported significantly more intrinsic interest, and spent significantly more time on the task during the free-choice period than subordinates whose supervisors believed them to be extrinsically motivated. Theoretical implications of the behavioral confirmation process for social perception and intrinsic motivation research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisory theory into practice: Differential perception of supervision by Ekstein, Ellis, Polster, and Rogers.

58 experienced supervisors (median age 35.1 yrs) evaluated videotaped supervision sessions conducted by either Rudolph Ekstein, Albert Ellis, Erving Polster, or Carl Rogers, who had all supervised the same therapist, based on the same work sample. The 4 supervisors, originators or major interpreters of their theoretical models, were perceived as differing in attractiveness and in their use of the critic, model, and nurturing roles identified by B. Apfelbaum (1958); they also were perceived as differing in the extent to which they functioned as counselor and as teacher and in the extent to which their work focused on the supervisee's technical skills, on his/her use of his/her personal reactions and feelings, and on case conceptualization. These differences generally were consistent with theory. Raters did not perceive the supervisee or client differentially across supervision sessions, although the supervisee was perceived to be differentially satisfied with supervision. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisor attraction as a function of level of supervisor skillfulness and supervisees' perceived similarity.

Used a laboratory analog study to investigate the effects of supervisor skillfulness and supervisor-supervisee attitude similarity on the attraction of the supervisee to the supervisor, using 29 graduate students in counseling. The similarity of the supervisee to the supervisor was varied by means of an attitude scale purportedly filled out by the supervisor. After the supervisees compared the bogus protocol with their own, each supervisee viewed a videotape of 1 of 2 simulated supervisory sessions showing the supervisor working at either a high or low level of skill with 2 supervisees. Results show a main effect of supervisor skillfulness on attraction, but did not show attraction to vary as a function of supervisor-supervisee attitude similarity. It is concluded that skillfulness was a primary determinant of attraction, but in contrast to previous findings, similarity did not exert a significant attraction effect; supervisor skillfulness appeared to eliminate the similarity-attraction effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effective supervision as perceived by beginning counselors-in-training.

16 supervisors of beginning practicum counselors rated the importance to good supervision of 42 supervisor behaviors. At the end of their 1st semester of training, 31 beginning practicum counselors rated the frequency with which their supervisors actually performed each of the 42 supervisor behaviors. The counselors also rated the effectiveness of supervision on 3 dimensions: satisfaction with supervision, supervisor competence, and contribution of supervision to improved counselor ability. In general, supervisors perceived supervision as primarily providing feedback to supervisees. Beginning counselors rated their supervision as good, however, if (a) a personal and pleasant supervisor–supervisee relationship existed; (b) supervisors provided relatively structured supervision sessions, especially during early sessions; and (c) supervisors directly taught beginning counselors how to counsel (i.e., by using literature, and by didactic instruction) and then encouraged the new counselors to try out their new skills. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The voices of registered play therapists as supervisors.

This study examined the background, perceived training needs, and issues of Registered Play Therapist Supervisors (n = 305) and their supervisees. Supervisors completed a four-part survey regarding demographics, supervisor and supervisee issues, and perceptions of training needs for supervisors of play therapists. Important findings are the lack of training in and possible understanding of clinical supervision, the lack of perceived need for supervision of supervision, and the absence of countertransference as an important issue for supervisors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in supervision as counselors and supervisors gain experience: A review.

Reviews research bearing on whether and how counselors and supervisors receive or give different types of supervision of psychotherapy as they each gain experience. Most theories describing changes in supervision of counselors as they gain experience are similar. They posit changes in the supervisee, with supervision environments being matched to the changing needs of the supervisee. There are 3 theories concerning how the supervisor changes as he/she gains experience. Empirical findings are consistent with theories of counselor development but only weakly supportive of the theory that actual supervision environments are matched to supervisee needs. Empirical findings on changes in supervisors as they gain experience reveal few differences in supervisors at any level beyond the master's degree. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

“From the margins to the center”: Moving towards a resilience-based model of supervision for queer people of color supervisors.

Informed by the authors’ experiences as queer people of color, this article proposes a model of supervision that encourages queer people of color supervisors to draw upon their own histories of oppression and resilience in providing culturally competent and affirmative supervision to trainees. The Queer People of Color Resilience-Based Model of Supervision references models of supervision that typically focus on supervisee development to explore ways in which supervisor development may also benefit the supervision process. This model integrates the multicultural supervision domains (Ancis & Ladany, 2001) with queer models of supervision (Halpert, Reinhardt, & Toohey, 2007) in order to address how racism and heterosexism both may influence the supervision process. The authors share critical incidents from their own development as supervisors, a case study, and specific suggestions for supervision to bring attention to the unique concerns of queer people of color who provide supervision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Describing and facilitating effective supervision behavior in counseling trainees.

Counseling trainees often do not receive formal assistance in assuming the role of supervisee. What constitutes effective trainee behavior within the context of supervision, as opposed to the clinical context, also has received little empirical attention. A national sample of 176 participants (145 supervisees, 31 supervisors) affiliated with counseling psychology or counseling center internship programs rated the importance of 52 behaviors/characteristics (Supervision Utilization Rating Form; SURF) to the effective use of supervision at specific developmental training levels. Supervisors and supervisees applied ratings from important to extremely important to all items. Statistically significant differences between supervisor and supervisee ratings were noted on 6 items. The development of the SURF and its potential uses in supervisee role induction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical supervision practices of licensed psychologists.

Surveyed 232 licensed psychologists from 1 midwestern state to assess the nature of clinical supervision for experienced practitioners. Data were collected concerning type, frequency, and content of supervision; supervisor goals, techniques, assessment methods, and roles; and most and least helpful aspects of supervision. There were few significant differences in supervision as a function of supervisee experience, gender, or degree (MA vs PhD), or supervisor gender. The supervisees generally appeared to have autonomous relationships with supervisors who were clinically skilled and highly supportive. Ethical concerns regarding supervisee informed consent, supervisor accountability, and gender-role stereotyping are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical issues in supervision.

Suggests the need for a review of current ethical standards regarding supervision of psychotherapists and presents alternative approaches to the supervisor–supervisee relationship. Group or vertical supervision (with peers and senior personnel) may reduce supervisee anxiety and provide more opportunities for objective support. Sharing supervisees may encourage supervisors to compare supervisory problems. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of differences in subordinate and supervisor age on attitudes and performance.

In a study of the influence of differences in employee age and the age of the employee's immediate supervisor, an age-difference variable was created and used to test 4 competing sets of predictions for performance and attitudinal outcomes within a sample of 292 high school teachers. Analyses revealed that employees who were older than their supervisors (1) reported better working relations with their supervisors, (2) evaluated their supervisors more favorably, and (3) received ratings from their supervisors that were not less favorable than other employees. The results suggest that bias does not necessarily operate against employees who are older than their supervisors and that a relational approach that is based on attribute similarity–dissimilarity offers an additional source of systematic variance that can aid in explaining individual responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interaction of job autonomy and conflict with supervisor in China and the United States: A qualitative and quantitative comparison.

We examined employees' conflict with their supervisors in cross-cultural work settings. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from 332 and 302 university employees in the United States and China, respectively. First, the qualitative data revealed that 54% versus 42% of supervisor conflicts were attributable to low job control in the United States and China, respectively. The quantitative data indicated that job autonomy was negatively related to supervisor conflict in the United States but not in China. Second, both quantitative and qualitative data showed that Chinese employees had more supervisor conflict than their U.S. counterparts. Third, both type of data suggested that supervisor conflict was more strongly related to job strains in China than in the United States. Finally, job autonomy played different roles in these two countries. It buffered supervisor conflict—job strain relations in the United States but exaggerated such relations in China. Therefore, our study provided a possible explanation to the inconsistent findings regarding the buffering effect of job autonomy on job stressors. Employees' cultural background may complicate the process. The qualitative data largely supported the quantitative findings and provided detailed information on employees' job stress experience in the cross-cultural context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisor and supervisee degree level and gender on the supervisory relationship.

86 graduate counseling students and 92 supervisors rated their relationships 3 times during a semester. At the semester's end, supervisees decribed the perceived frequency of performance of supervisor behaviors. Supervisors and supervisees differed in their perceptions of the relationship and how it developed. Supervisees, in contrast to supervisors, saw improvement in their relationships over time. Male supervisees and supervisors both rated their relationships as better than females. Gender matching affected supervisees' perceptions of their relationships but not supervisors' perceptions. Semester-end ratings showed that supervisees discriminated between the quality of the relationship, which was affected by gender matching, supervisor gender, and supervisor behavior, and supervisor competence, which was affected only by supervisor behavior. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role perceptions of successful and unsuccessful supervisors.

The self-perceived role of first-line supervisors was compared with the role perceived by their superiors. 18 items (word pairs) differentiated between the "high" and "low" groups at the 5% level or better. "The most outstanding self-perception of the 'poor' supervisor is his sales approach to human relations… [while]… the 'good' supervisor… sees himself as respecting the rights and dignity of others." Conclusions are explored on the basis of the assumptions that (1) the self-perceptions are in approximate accord with the superiors' perceptions, and (2) the differences in self-perception reflect qualities that distinguish good from poor supervisors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When supervisors feel supported: Relationships with subordinates' perceived supervisor support, perceived organizational support, and performance.

The authors surveyed full-time retail employees and their supervisors to investigate relationships of supervisors' perceived organizational support (POS) with subordinates' perceptions of support from their supervisors (perceived supervisor support [PSS]), POS, and in-role and extra-role performance. The authors found that supervisors' POS was positively related to their subordinates' perceptions of supervisor support. Subordinates' PSS, in turn, was positively associated with their POS, in-role performance, and extra-role performance. Beyond these bivariate relationships, subordinates' perceptions of support from the supervisor mediated positive relationships of the supervisors' POS with the subordinates' POS and performance. These findings suggest that supervisors who feel supported by the organization reciprocate with more supportive treatment for subordinates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student supervision: myth or reality?

This paper is based on the early findings of a qualitative longitudinal study using a grounded theory approach to analysis. A cohort of Project 2000 students and their clinical supervisors were observed in 10 different ward settings and interviewed prior to leaving the setting. A non-participant observation technique was utilized, noting the students' interactions with their deemed supervisors. The students and the supervisors were then interviewed using a semi-structured question format to explore supervision issues. The findings suggest that both students and supervisors in the study believe that supervision is an important learning strategy. However, what is believed in theory would not always appear to hold true in practice. The study identifies a limited knowledge by the supervisors of the skills and models of supervision, indicating the need for greater role preparation and a more clearly defined role specification. Supervision tended to focus upon tasks rather than issues. Furthermore, the role conflicts experienced by the supervisors was perceived as inhibiting facilitation of student learning. It is recommended that, for supervision to be more effective within the present operational constraints, it should utilize a more problem-solving approach, thus encouraging critical reflection on practice.     

Supervision in relationship: Resolving the teach-treat controversy in psychoanalytic supervision.

Considers whether the effective supervisor must at times address supervisee conflicts and relationship problems that interfere with role functioning. Such a supervisory stance may move beyond teaching into "treating" the supervisee. Explicit acknowledgment that the supervisor is a participant-observer with anxieties and conflicts, rather than an objective expert, is argued to create a new context for supervision. Within this relational context, the teach–treat boundary becomes less problematic. An illustrative vignette is offered, and ideas toward a theory that legitimizes countertransference focus in supervision are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hindering phenomena in group supervision: Implications for practice.

Although group supervision is practiced extensively, research on the subject remains scant. This study identified group supervision phenomena that hinder learning. Counseling and counseling psychology graduate students identified 61 group supervision experiences that they felt interfered with their learning. Then, 14 of the 49 original participants sorted the 61 phenomena on the basis of similarity. Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to identify 5 types of hindering phenomena: between-member problems, problems with supervisors, supervisee anxiety and other perceived negative affects, logistical constraints, and poor group time management. Implications for supervisors, supervisees, and training programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dangerous liaisons: Sexual intimacies in supervision.

The existing literature concerning supervisor–supervisee sexual intimacies was reviewed before proposing a conceptualization of sexual contact in the supervisory relationship. Three definitions of sexual contact (sexual harassment, sexual involvement, and sexual discrimination) are presented. The nature of the supervisory relationship is defined by comparison with other professional relationships (instructor–student and therapist–client). The process of supervisor and speculation about vulnerabilities of trainees to sexual advances by supervisors are discussed in terms of the developmental model of therapist training. The damaging effects of sexual contact between supervisors and supervisees are discussed and suggestions for improved graduate education are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)