Heat transfer to the ceiling of the riser of a circulating fluidized bed

Very little information on the heat transfer to the ceiling of a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler is available in the published literature though it constitutes a significant part of the furnace heat absorption. So, to explore this less-known heat transfer process a series of experiments were conducted at four different superficial gas velocities and three external solids circulation rates in a CFB pilot plant with a riser having a height of 5 m and a cross section of . The experimental results suggest that both solids circulation rates and superficial gas velocities had a significant influence on the local heat transfer to the ceiling close to the riser exit to the gas solids separator. However, on the ceiling, opposite of the exit, solids circulation rates and superficial gas velocities had only a minor influence on the local heat transfer coefficients.     

Solids mixing in the riser of a circulating fluidized bed

Gas/solid and catalytic gas phase reactions in CFBs use different operating conditions, with a strict control of the solids residence time and limited back-mixing only essential in the latter applications. Since conversion proceeds with residence time, this residence time is an essential parameter in reactor modelling. To determine the residence time and its distribution (RTD), previous studies used either stimulus response or single tracer particle studies.The experiments of the present research were conducted at ambient conditions and combine both stimulus response and particle tracking measurements. Positron emission particle tracking (PEPT) continuously tracks individual radioactive tracer particles, thus yielding data on particle movement in “real time”, defining particle velocities and population density plots.Pulse tracer injection measurements of the RTD were performed in a 0.1 m I.D. riser. PEPT experiments were performed in a small ( I.D.) riser, using ¹⁸F-labelled sand and radish seed. The operating conditions varied from 1 to 10 m/s as superficial velocity, and 25- as solids circulation rate.Experimental results were compared with fittings from several models. Although the model evaluation shows that the residence time distribution (RTD) of the experiments shifts from near plug flow to perfect mixing (when the solids circulation rate decreases), none of the models fits the experimental results over the broad (U,G)-range.The particle slip velocity was found to be considerably below the theoretical value in core/annulus flow (due to cluster formation), but to be equal at high values of the solids circulation rate and superficial gas velocity.The transition from mixed to plug flow was further examined. At velocities near U_tr the CFB-regime is either not fully developed and/or mixing occurs even at high solids circulation rates. This indicates the necessity of working at U> approx. ( to have a stable solids circulation, irrespective of the need to operate in either mixed or plug flow mode. At velocities above this limit, plug flow is achieved when the solids circulation rate . Solids back-mixing occurs at lower G and the operating mode can be described by the core/annulus approach. The relative sizes of core and annulus, as well as the downward particle velocity in the annulus (∼U_t) are defined from PEPT measurements.Own and literature data were finally combined in a core/annulus vs. plug flow diagram. These limits of working conditions were developed from experiments at ambient conditions. Since commercial CFB reactors normally operate at a higher temperature and/or pressure, gas properties such as density and viscosity will be different and possibly influence the gas-solid flow and mixing. Further tests at higher temperatures and pressures are needed or scaling laws must be considered. At ambient conditions, reactors requiring pure plug flow must operate at and . If back-mixing is required, as in gas/solid reactors, operation at and is recommended.     

Solids flow pattern in gas-flowing solids-fixed bed contactors. Part I: Experimental

An experimental investigation of the solids flow pattern in gas-flowing solids-fixed bed contactors is presented. The apparatus and procedures for determining the dynamic and static solids holdups, solids residence time distribution and the extent and rate of the exchange between particles in the static and dynamic solids holdup are described in detail.Experiments were performed in a bench scale system, containing a column (diameter ) packed with glass beads of 16 mm in diameter packed up to the height of 0.8 m. Tracer experiments with a step input in flowing solids phase were used for determining the residence time distribution and exchange between particles. Fine solids (spheres with mean diameter of ) of two different colors (all other properties being the same) were used in the tracer experiments to determine the residence time distribution and the exchange between static and dynamic solids holdup. In both types of experiments, the response curves have been obtained via color analysis of digital photos. All experiments have been repeated at different operating conditions, with a broad variation of solids mass flux and gas velocity, and reproducibility at set conditions was checked.The obtained experimental results are discussed and the observed important characteristics of the solids flow pattern are outlined. The effects of the solids flux and gas velocity on the solids flow pattern are presented and analyzed.     

Experimental investigation of gas-liquid distribution in monolith reactors

The present work investigates the influence of gas and liquid flow rates on inlet liquid distribution across monoliths operating in gas-liquid cocurrent downflow mode. Gas and liquid superficial velocities range from 0 to 68 and 1.4 to 8.5 cm/s, respectively. Gas-liquid distribution was studied using a packed bed liquid distributor and a pipe distributor for the aforementioned range of operating conditions. To determine the liquid distribution over the monolith, gravimetric, time-averaged liquid collection method was applied using a customized collector apparatus. Quantification of the distribution is reported using a suitably defined maldistribution factor. For each liquid velocity, gas velocities are varied and corresponding maldistribution factors are calculated. The results are reported in view of the varying operating conditions.     

Flow behavior and regime transition in a high-density circulating fluidized bed riser

Flow behavior and flow regime transitions were determined in a circulating fluidized bed riser (0.203 m i.d. × 5.9 m high) of FCC particles (, ). A momentum probe was used to measure radial profiles of solids momentum flux at several heights and to distinguish between local net upward and downward flow. In the experimental range covered (; ), the fast fluidization flow regime was observed to coexist with dense suspension upflow (DSU). At a constant gas velocity, net downflow of solids near the wall disappeared towards the bottom of the riser with increasing solids mass flux, with dense suspension upflow achieved where there was no refluxing of solids near the riser wall on a time-average basis. The transition to DSU conditions could be distinguished by means of variations of net solids flow direction at the wall, annulus thickness approaching zero and flattening of the solids holdup versus G_s trend. A new flow regime map is proposed distinguishing the fast fluidization, DSU and dilute pneumatic transport flow regimes.     

Application of the off-gas method to the measurement of oxygen transfer in biofilters

To determine the oxygen mass transfer in clean water in biofilters, a method based on the follow up of the oxygen fraction in the off gas during the oxidation of sulphite in excess has been evaluated and applied to a pilot-scale unit (250 L, superficial gas velocity from 0 to , superficial liquid velocity from 0 to ). Tests performed on a two-phase reactor showed that, without any cobalt addition, standard oxygen transfer efficiencies (SOTE) obtained from the proposed method are not statistically different from those issued from the standardised method. A relationship has been proposed to express SOTE values as a function of the conductivity, and the influence of the gas and liquid velocities on SOTE and k_La has been investigated.     

CFD simulation of gas solid flow in FCC strippers

In this paper, the hydrodynamic characteristics in bubbling fluidized beds (FCC Strippers) were simulated by using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code (Fluent 6.2.16). The modified Gidaspow drag model based on the effective mean diameter of the particle clusters predicted the expected bubbling fluidization behavior and bed expansion. Compared with the bed densities of in the empty-cylinder stripper, bed densities in the V-baffled stripper were at the superficial gas velocity of 0.10-0.20 m/s. The overall trend of the time-averaged bed density at various superficial gas velocities were in agreement with the experimental data. The results illustrated that internal baffles had an important effect on the fluidization hydrodynamics. Internal baffles improved break-up and redistribution of bubbles and intensified the gas-solid contact. The simulation results also indicated that appropriate modification of the internal configuration eliminated the dead flow region in the strippers, and enhanced the gas-solid mixing remarkably, showing benefit for the mass and heat transfer in the fluidized bed.     

Flow regimes and gas holdup in paper pulp-water-gas three-phase slurry flow

Hydrodynamic flow characteristics of solid-liquid-gas slurry made by intimately mixing fibrous paper pulp with water and air were investigated in a short, vertical circular column. The pulp consistency (weight fraction of pulp in the pulp-water mixture) was varied in the low consistency range of 0.0-1.5%. The test section was long, with inner diameter. Mixing of the slurry prior to entering the test section was done using a patented mixer with controlled cavitation that generated finely dispersed micro-bubbles.Flow structures, gas holdup, and the geometric and population characteristics of gas bubbles in the gas-pulp-liquid three-phase flow were experimentally investigated, using visual observation, Gamma-ray densitometry, and flash X-ray photography. Superficial velocities of the gas and liquid/pulp mixture covered the ranges 0- and 21-, respectively.Five distinct flow regimes could be visually identified. These included dispersed bubbly, characterized by isolated micro-bubbles entrapped in fiber networks; layered bubbly, characterized by bubbles rising in a low consistency annular zone near the channel wall; plug; churn-turbulent; and slug. The dispersed and layered bubbly regimes could be maintained only at very low gas superficial velocities or gas holdups. Flow regime maps were constructed using phasic superficial velocities as coordinates, and the regime transition lines were found to be sensitive to consistency.The cross section-average gas holdup data showed that both the dispersed and the layered bubbly regimes could best be represented by the homogeneous mixture model. The drift flux model could best be applied to the reminder of the data when the plug and churn-turbulent flow regimes were treated together, and the slug flow was treated separately. The drift flux parameters depended on the pulp consistency.     

Hydrodynamics of slurry bubble column during dimethyl ether (DME) synthesis: Gas-liquid recirculation model and radioactive tracer studies

Radioactive tracer measurements, using impulse injections of Ar⁴¹, powdered oxide of Mn⁵⁶ and real catalyst particles doped with an oxide of Mn⁵⁶, conducted at the Advance Fuels Development Unit (AFDU) slurry bubble column (BC) reactor during dimethyl ether (DME) synthesis (reactor pressure of 5.27 MPa, reactor temperature of , inlet superficial gas velocity of 17.1 cm/s, and a catalyst loading of 36 wt%) at LaPorte, Texas, are interpreted. The differences in the responses obtained by the catalyst and fine powdered Mn₂O₃ tracer injections are minimal indicating the validity of the pseudo-homogeneous assumption for the liquid plus solid (catalyst) phase mixtures. The gas-liquid recirculation model [Gupta et al., 2001a. Comparison of single- and two-bubble class gas-liquid recirculation models—application to pilot-plant radioactive tracer studies during methanol synthesis. Chemical Engineering Science 56(3), 1117-1125. 2001b. Hydrodynamics of churn turbulent bubble columns: gas-liquid recirculation and mechanistic modeling. Catalysis Today 64(3-4), 253-269], based on a constant bubble size, describing gas-liquid mass transfer superimposed on turbulent mixing of the gas and liquid phases, is used to simulate the gas, liquid and catalyst tracer responses acquired at the AFDU. The model is able to predict the characteristic features of the experimental responses observed for gas, slurry powder and catalyst tracers at different reactor elevations. The fact, that the same model was previously shown capable of predicting both gas and liquid radioactive tracer responses during methanol and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis, indicates that this model offers a relatively simple tool for assessing mixing and transport in bubble (BCs) for a variety of gas conversion processes and provides a phenomenologically based framework for BC reactor modeling.     

Liquid mixing in gas-liquid two-phase flow by meandering microchannels

The influence of the channel radius on the mass transfer in rectangular meandering microchannels (width and height of ) has been investigated for gas-liquid flow. Laser induced velocimetry measurements have been compared with theoretical results. The symmetrical velocity profile, known from the straight channel, was found to change to an asymmetrical one for the meandering channel configuration. The changes in the secondary velocity profile lead to an enhanced radial mass transfer inside the liquid slug, resulting in a reduced mixing length. In the investigated experimental range (superficial gas velocity and superficial liquid velocity ) the mixing time was reduced eightfold solely due to changes in channel geometry. An experimental study on the liquid slug lengths, the pressure drop and their relation to the mass transfer have also been performed. Experimental results were validated by a simulation done in Comsol Multiphysics^®. To obtain information for higher velocity rates, simulations were performed up to . These velocity variations in the simulation indicate the occurrence of a different flow pattern for high velocities, leading to further mass transfer intensification.     

Effect of louver baffles on hydrodynamics and gas mixing in a fluidized bed of FCC particles

The effect of louver baffles on the particle concentration profiles, pressure fluctuations, bed expansion, and gas mixing of a fluidized bed was investigated in a transparent 2-D column of cross-section 500×30 mm and height 6 m over a broad range of operating conditions covering both the bubbling and turbulent flow regimes. Visual observations, pressure fluctuations and steady gas tracer experiments showed that louver baffles can break bubbles, as indicted by the lower amplitudes and higher mean frequencies of differential pressure fluctuations, but they were only effective for superficial gas velocities <∼0.7 m/s for the FCC particles considered in this study. The ability of louver baffles to break bubbles reached a maximum near the onset of the turbulent flow regime. A gas cushion of low particle concentration appeared below the louver baffle, and its height increased with increasing superficial gas velocity, indicating increasing suppression of solids backmixing. Internal emulsion circulation was promoted above the louver baffle, causing an uneven distribution of gas flow. The addition of louver baffles reduced the upstream tracer gas concentrations by 80-90%, indicating a significant decrease in the backmixing fluxes of both gas and solids across the baffle layer. The tracer gas concentrations above the louver baffles increased resulting from the promoted emulsion circulation by louver baffles.     

Rationalising MRI, conductance and pressure drop measurements of the trickle-to-pulse transition in trickle beds

Recent MRI data have shown that the transition from trickle to pulsing flow in trickle-bed reactors occurs over a range of liquid velocities at constant gas velocity. The transition is initiated by isolated local pulsing events, which increase in number with increase in liquid velocity until a maximum number exists. Above this liquid velocity, which we have termed the transition point, the individual pulses merge until a single macro-scale pulse is formed and the whole bed demonstrates pulsing flow. In this paper we compare the characterisation of the transition obtained using conductance and pressure drop measurements with that obtained using MRI. Using the insights gained from the 3-D MRI measurements, recorded with a data acquisition time of 280 ms, it is shown that the conductance and pressure drop measurements are sensitive to different stages of the evolution of the hydrodynamic transition, a factor important when using these different measurements in the development and validation of numerical and theoretical models. Conductance measurements identify unambiguously only the onset of the single macro-scale pulse regime, consistent with a determination of the transition point made by visual observation. In contrast, pressure drop measurements are sensitive to both the onset of formation of local pulses and the liquid velocity at which the maximum number of liquid pulses occurs. We also show how a combination of conductance and pressure drop measurements can be used to fully characterise the transition, thereby enabling translation of the insights gained by MRI into a robust measurement strategy for use on larger-scale reactors. Data are reported for a cylindrical column of length 70 cm and inner diameter 43 mm, packed with cylindrical porous γ-Al₂O₃ packing elements of length and diameter 3 mm. The bed was operated under conditions of co-current downflow of air and water, at ambient temperature and a pressure of 2 barg. Gas and liquid superficial velocities were in the range 25-300 and 0.9-, respectively.     

A study on sulphidation and regeneration of Z-Sorb III sorbent for H2S removal from simulated ELCOGAS IGCC syngas

The sulphidation and regeneration of the sorbent Z-Sorb III has been investigated at bench scale in a high-temperature, high-pressure fixed-bed unit, over a range of conditions relevant to the Puertollano IGCC plant (Spain). The effect of gas hourly space velocity (1000-), temperature (673-773 K) and pressure (1-2 MPa) on sulphidation is studied. As predicted by thermodynamics, the sorbent is capable of reducing the H₂S concentration from 10,000 ppmv to near 0 ppmv. The analysis of the experimental results shows that gas residence time has a strong effect on sorbent utilization. Below , the sorbent seems to promote the Boudouard reaction. As a result of this, CO content in the gas stream increases with simultaneous carbon formation in the solid phase. At higher gas velocities , CO disproportionation does not occur and the sulphidation reaction proceeds isothermally to complete conversion of ZnO. Further increase in space velocity to leads to lower sorbent utilization, which is typical of diffusion-limited gas-solid heterogeneous reactions. On the other hand, sulphidation temperature has very little effect on sulphur loading uptake which is slightly higher at 773 K than at 673 K. Regarding the effect of pressure, the sorbent is most effective at 2 MPa, almost reaching the theoretical saturation capacity. The study of the durability of the sorbent is investigated through multiple sulphidation-regeneration cycles. Oxidative dry mild regeneration using an oxygen concentration of 2% v/v results in complete regeneration of the sulphided sorbent without severe structural property changes or activity loss. The primary reaction during regeneration of the sulphided sorbent is direct oxidation of the metal sulphide with SO₂ release.     

Fluidization behavior in a circulating slugging fluidized bed reactor. Part II: Plug characteristics

In the transporting square nosed slugging fluidization regime () a bed of polyethylene powder with a low density () and a large particle size distribution () was operated in two circulating fluidized bed systems (riser diameters 0.044 and 0.105 m). A relation was derived for the plug velocity as a function of the gas velocity, solids flux, riser diameter, particle size range and particle and powder properties. The influence of the plug length on the plug velocity, the raining rate of solids onto and from the plugs and the influence of the particle size range on the plug velocity is accounted for.     

CFD simulation of effects of the configuration of gas distributors on gas-liquid flow and mixing in a bubble column

Numerical simulations of gas-liquid flow in a cylindrical bubble column of 400 mm in diameter at the superficial gas velocity were conducted to investigate effects of the configuration of gas distributors on hydrodynamic behaviour, gas hold-up and mixing characteristics. Eight different gas distributors were adopted in the simulation. The simulation results clearly show that the configuration of gas distributor have an important impact on liquid velocity and local gas hold-up in the vicinity of the gas distributor. Comparisons of the overall gas holdup and mixing time among different gas distributors have demonstrated that none of the adopted gas distributors was able to produce the highest interfacial area and also yield the shortest mixing time. The CFD modelling results reveal that an increase in the number of gas sparging pipes used in gas distributors is beneficial in improving the gas hold-up but is disadvantageous in reducing bubble size due to a decrease in turbulent kinetic dissipation. It has been demonstrated from the simulations that the appearance of asymmetrical flow patterns in the bubble column and the adoption of smaller gas sparging pipes for gas distributors are effective in improving the mixing characteristics.     

Study of limestone particle impact attrition

Impact attrition of limestone particles was investigated at temperatures from 25 to and 1 atm pressure. Impacts changed the particle size distribution and mean particle diameter significantly for conveying gas velocities of 20-100 m/s. With increasing temperature less attrition occurred due to a decrease in particle impact velocity and an increase in the threshold particle impact velocity. The activation energy for impact attrition was . The mean limestone particle diameter decreased with increasing number of impacts and increasing impact velocity. Two empirical equations give good agreement with the experiments. Based on the experimental observations and correlations, an impact mechanism is suggested, where the area of new surface generated is proportional to the total kinetic energy consumed, to the number of impact cycles and an exponential decrease with temperature. When particles break, each particle generally splits into 2-3 daughter particles. The threshold particle velocities for breaking limestone particles were found to be at , similar to the reported literature values.     

Wicke-Kallenbach and Graham's diffusion cells: Limits of application for low surface area porous solids

The influence of permeation flux induced by tiny pressure gradients on the counter-current gas diffusion in porous solids is discussed. Binary counter-current gas diffusion in porous samples with a broad range of pore radii (78 nm- was studied in arrangements of the Wicke-Kallenbach and Graham's diffusion cells. A small pressure difference between the cell compartments was observed both in the Wicke-Kallenbach cell (7 Pa) and Graham's cell (9 Pa). For samples with pore radii above significant deviations of diffusion fluxes were observed. Limits of pore sizes above which the additional permeation transport influences the diffusion results beyond acceptable level were obtained by simplified calculations. The distorted diffusion fluxes can be numerically freed from the contribution of permeation flux if permeation characteristics are available.     

Estimate of solid flow rate from pressure measurement in circulating fluidized bed

A method is described to estimate solid mass flow rate based on measurement of pressure drop in horizontal section of circulating fluid bed (CFB). A theoretical model was derived based on momentum balance equation and used to predict the solids flow rate. Several approaches for formulating such models are compared and contrasted. A correlation was developed that predicts the solids flow rate as a function of pressure drop measured in the horizontal section of piping leading from the top of the riser to the cyclone, often referred to as the cross-over. Model validation data was taken from literature data and from steady state, cold flow, CFB tests results of five granular materials with various sizes and densities in which the riser was operated in core-annular and dilute flow regimes. Experimental data were taken from a 0.20 m ID cross-over piping and compared to literature data generated in a 0.10 m ID cross-over pipe. The solids mass flow rate data were taken from statistically designed experiments over a wide range of Froude number , load ratio , Euler number , density ratio , Reynolds number , and Archimedes number . Several correlations were developed and tested to predict the solids mass flux based on measuring pressure drop in the horizontal section of CFB. It was found that load ratio is a linear function of the Euler number and that each of these expressions all worked quite well (R² > 95%) for the data within the range of conditions from which the coefficients were estimated.