Modular co‐ordination

Is the concept of modular co‐ordination ‘theoretical’ or ‘Utopian’ as some sceptics allege? Not at all, writes the co‐ordinator of CIB working commission W24/IMG, who here outlines its progress over the years, what it is now about and ‐ especially ‐ what it is not. CIB Report No. 68, the modern ‘Principles’, is seen as the culmination of much earlier work as well as a breakthrough for further international development, notably through its treatment of such difficult aspects as tolerances, building fit and joint sizing. Mr McEvatt is with An Foras Forbartha, of Ireland.     

Inter‐city travel: some planning implications

The first part of the paper is concerned with the development and calibration of a suitable mathematical model for determining the choice of travel mode between rail and air on four inter‐city routes in the U.K. Using the results obtained from the developed model, the second part of the paper is devoted to discussing some of the more important planning implications which have been highlighted. In particular, access/egress to the termini, the importance of travel time for both work and nonwork travellers, and car parking implications, are stressed.     

Failures of centralized metropolitanism: Inter‐war Moscow and New York

This comparative study portrays New York and Moscow during a period of dramatic growth and transformation for both — from “mere” national centres to international capitals of competing world systems. Stalin and his architects imposed a grand, imperial face on the “calico” Moscow that had survived the upheavals of the earlier part of the century in Russia; in New York, Robert Moses, the Rockefellers, Al Smith, Fiorello La Guardia, Franklin D. Roosevelt and scores of others created a new “capital of capitalism” that leapt across bays, rivers and even small mountain ranges to encompass a region of over 5,000 sq. miles and 11 million souls. While the planners in both communities participated in the era's international debate over the optimal course of urban development, in the end both groups favoured rather traditional 19th century notions of the centralized city: both metropolitan areas came to follow a decentralized path into the future, and by the end of World War II, Centralized Metropolitanism had clearly died in both cities.     

Collaboration,equality and land‐use planning

This article examines the connection between ethnic‐religious segregation and land‐use policy. It questions the normative capacity of collaborative planning in societies where place is imbued with multiple political, social and ethnic meanings. Using research data from Belfast, it identifies a number of challenges to discursive practice, namely the understanding of ‘place’ and how it is constructed, the emotional qualities attached to territory and the way in which professionalized policy routines moderate participatory practice. The article goes on to argue that space is being reinterpreted via statutory equality, human rights and social needs legislation, which have placed further strain on planners and planning policy in the city. However, it concludes by emphasizing the potential of collaborative planning to animate equality and social inclusion and give direction to the profession and practice in areas long divided by poverty and ethnic division. For this to happen, collaborative practice needs to inform the plan‐making process from formulation to implementation and not be limited to fairly selective public consultation exercises.     

Anti‐urban ideologies and planning in France and Switzerland: Jean‐François Gravier and Armin Meili

Jean‐François Gravier and Armin Meili were two leading pioneers of planning in France and Switzerland. Gravier was the famous author of Paris et le désert français, first published in 1947; Meili was the author of the first national conception of planning in Switzerland and was very active in planning policy in the 1940s. Each has deeply influenced the implementation of planning policy in his country and both have constructed their theories around a criticism of the city: Paris for Gravier; big cities, in general, for Meili.

This paper first describes the recurrent critiques of the city in the thoughts of these authors. From sterility to unhealthiness, they combine moral and physical criticisms. Although they belong to different countries and different political cultures, their thoughts take root in surprisingly common backgrounds based on the strength of ruralism and the political context of fascism. Finally, an analysis of their similar propositions concerning town and country planning policies is offered. The lessons of Gravier and Meili are based on different myths which the article will attempt to analyse.     

Twenty‐five years (1967–1992) of urban transport planning in France

In retracing the history of the last twenty‐five years of urban transport planning in France, we begin by providing an explanation of the quarter‐century 1967–1992 in four distinct phases. This brings out for each one of the four periods the specific procedures, the tendencies of local policies on public transport, and the evolution of mobility behaviour as well as central planning problematics. It also highlights, in the language of economics, supply (transportation services) and demand (needs in terms of movement), the modalities of adaptation of supply to demand, and their dysfunction.     

Reconstruction planning and the small town in early post‐war Britain

The development of the south bank of the central waterfront area of Rotterdam may be seen as the culmination of a process of reconstruction and redevelopment in the city that has been taking place over a considerable period, in particular since the destruction of a large part of the city's central area in the Second World War. This process has involved an evolution in the approaches to spatial planning in the city, as illustrated for instance by the development of high-profile and innovative architectural projects in recent years, as well as the development of cultural projects and the consequent adoption of a new cultural identity. Such projects have served to aid a re-definition of the city's image both within the Netherlands and at the international level. These achievements may be explained with reference to the wider urban policy context in Europe since the Second World War, the approach to urban policy in the Netherlands, and the approach to land use planning and regeneration adopted by the municipality of Rotterdam.     

Developing and financing the ‘garden metropolis’: Urban planning and housing policy in twentieth‐century America

This article examines the evolution of garden city ideas in the United States during the twentieth century. It distinguishes between four sets of goals: environmental reform; social reform; town planning, and regional planning. Much of the literature on American garden city movements focuses on the general political failure of its advocates to achieve key social reforms and regional planning objectives. By contrast, the accomplishments in environmental reform and town planning have been far more successful. Though Ebenezer Howard's proposals did not lead to widespread adoption in their purest form, urban decentralization and sub‐urbanization have produced significant improvements in the building of higher‐quality and lower‐density housing and in providing more open space and greenery for a large segment of the population. This pattern of planning and development may be viewed as ‘the garden metropolis.’ Its relationship to garden city ideas is best symbolized by the central role of Thomas Adams, the British planner who served as a leading proponent of the garden metropolis in the United States. Many of Adams’ policy recommendations, including his strong support for mass home owership initiatives, were later implemented by the Federal Housing Administration beginning in 1934. The FHA, through its mortgage insurance programs, its property and neighborhood standards, and its Land Planning Division, was extremely influential in shaping the growth of the garden metropolis, especially during the 1940s and 50s.     

Knowledge-based land use and transport planning? Consistency and gap between “state-of-the-art” knowledge and knowledge claims in planning documents in three Scandinavian city regions

The central concern of this paper is the relationship between research-driven “state-of-the-art” knowledge, and knowledge claims made in practice, in planning for sustainability. The paper approaches this topic from a critical realist perspective, which is used to provide criteria for positing “state-of-the-art” knowledge validity, and assessing the quality of situated knowledge claims in planning practice. In this way the paper contributes to debates about an ontological turn in planning knowledge. By reviewing key planning documents in three Scandinavian city regions, the paper shows that the knowledge claims about travel behavioral impacts of proposed land use and transport infrastructure presented in the documents are, to varying extents, in accordance with “state-of-the-art” academic knowledge on these topics. Some long-standing “planning myths” are encountered in the investigated planning documents. In one of the cities, residential and workplace location close to suburban public transport stops is highlighted as a traffic-reducing measure, rather than proximity to inner-city concentrations of jobs and other facilities, and density is discussed at a neighborhood scale rather than at a city scale. In all three cities, planning documents depict road capacity increases as having no traffic-generating effect. These latter claims are used in support of more decentralized land-use patterns and considerable road development. Since the likelihood of achieving sustainability goals relies heavily on whether the measures chosen are productive or counter-productive, knowledge obviously matters. A stronger focus on how well suited proposed strategies for spatial development are to produce their purported outcomes should be welcomed in planning research and practice.     

Promoting place: elevating place‐based discourse and new approaches in local governance in New South Wales

In recent years, disenchantment of extant planning systems has assisted the consideration of alternative, place‐based models. By offering a critical analysis of these approaches, this article attempts to explore the value and challenge of such for the planning system of NSW.     

Automated trade‐off between time and cost in planning repetitive construction projects

An automated model is developed to support the optimization of the planning and scheduling of repetitive construction projects. The model provides the capability of optimizing two important objectives commonly sought in scheduling repetitive construction projects: minimizing project duration; and minimizing project cost. The model performs this multi‐objective optimization using a genetic algorithm approach. The output of the model is a set of optimal solutions that represent the trade‐off between time and cost in planning repetitive construction projects. Furthermore, the model can be utilized to find a single scheduling solution that provides the minimum overall project cost by simply adding project indirect cost to the obtained project direct cost for each of the obtained scheduling solutions on the Pareto optimal curve. Other important time‐related costs are also considered in the model including: early completion incentives, late completion penalties and lane rental costs. Providing the planners of repetitive construction projects with an automated set of optimal time–cost trade‐off solutions should contribute to cost‐effective and speedy delivery of this type of construction project. An application example is analysed to illustrate the use of the model and demonstrate its capabilities in generating optimal trade‐off solutions between minimizing the project time and cost for repetitive construction projects.     

The experience and legacy of French colonial urban planning in sub‐Saharan Africa

This paper examines the activities of French colonial authorities in the urban planning arena in sub‐Saharan Africa. It reveals that, despite the dearth of information on these activities, especially in the relevant English language literature, the French were very active in the planning field before and during their colonial era in the region. While these activities might have been intended to do no more than facilitate the attainment of French colonial development objectives, they have far‐reaching implications for contemporary development efforts. It is argued that French colonial urban designs, schemes and legislation have negative implications for urban transportation, housing, land tenure and the growth and development of urban centres vis‐à‐vis the rural areas. Problems in these areas are aggravated by the fact that post‐colonial authorities in the region have opted to inherit and vigorously enforce the planning legislation and schemes crafted by their colonial predecessors.     

Land‐use planning in ‘one country,two systems’: Hong Kong,Guangzhou and Shenzhen

This paper studies the political economy of urban governance and land‐use planning mechanisms in the ‘one country, two systems’ of mainland China and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR). It is argued that the market economy of Hong Kong had, over the years as a British colony, established an efficiently‐run regulatory system of land‐use planning. The current land‐use planning mechanisms are biased toward economic growth as a result of its executive‐government‐led and business‐interests‐dominated political structure. The challenge for Hong Kong as a relatively autonomous SAR, therefore, is to incorporate the social and environmental dimensions in planning for territorial development within a wider regional context as a result of economic and political integration with China. In mainland China, the reforming socialist planned economy has now embraced privately and foreign‐owned enterprises though the Communist Party and the government have retained strong political control. A ‘dual’ land‐use development system operates under an economic‐growth‐oriented development strategy. On one hand, government authorities who are land owners, land managers, and the largest land users as they own most of the economic enterprises, may not, for various reasons, follow the planning intentions when formally allocating land for development projects. On the other hand, illegal construction and land uses are widespread, suggesting that the formal land‐use planning system is ineffective, if not irrelevant, in controlling development. Part of the explanation lies in the absence of a genuine land market where legitimate persons with land‐use rights can buy and sell land within a planning framework generally agreed by the community. Unless Chinese cities strive to establish formal land‐use planning processes to prepare plans with the participation of various actors to reflect their needs, and establish urban planning mechanisms that have teeth in controlling development, urban planning will continue to be marginal in local governance.     

Planning appeals: The impacts of conflicting planning philosophies between judicial and executive planning bodies ‐ a rural planning case study

Abstract

All Australian planning systems include a right of appeal to allow decisions to be reviewed, and the appeal body is usually a court or tribunal. The legal interpretation of planning principles therefore has the capacity to significantly influence planning practice. This article explores the potential for conflicting philosophies between judicial and executive planning bodies and examines the impacts these differences may have on planning practice, policy and outcomes.     

Is it time to use activity-based urban transport models? A discussion of planning needs and modelling possibilities

For some decades now, transport researchers have put considerable efforts into developing what is called activity-based approaches for modelling urban travel demand. The basic idea is that travel demand is derived from people’s desires to take part in different activities. In particular, the interrelationships among different activities with respect to temporal and spatial constraints are in focus. It means that such models treat the activities and the travelling of the households with respect to where and when the activities can be carried out and how they may be scheduled, given characteristics of the households and potential opportunities, the transport networks and various institutional constraints. We discuss what demands we see on future travel demand models, with a focus on urban analysis. This discussion is somewhat biased towards what role activity-based models could play in meeting these demands. We then review in some detail three prominent and distinctly different representatives of operational activity-based models to give an indication of what new modelling possibilities they offer. Theoretical appeal, empirical validity, usefulness for planning, need for data and easiness of implementation are discussed. In the final section we draw some conclusions about the prospects of these models and of their descendants.     

Urban and semi‐urban planning in developing countries from a water and waste water treatment point of view

Several appropriate technology alternatives are suggested for water and wastewatei treatment in less developed countries. Large‐scale water supply systems employing conventional water treatment methods should be replaced by several small‐scale water treatment units utilizing appropriate water treatment methods.

Conventional sewerage systems should be replaced by low cost on‐site sanitation systems and several other low‐cost wastewater treatment methods such as oxidation ponds, aerated lagoons and anaerobic lagoons. Wastewater renovation and re‐use should be actively encouraged in view of dwindling water resources in these countries.     

Contestation and conservatism in neighbourhood planning in England: reconciling agonism and collaboration?

Neighbourhood planning was formally enabled as a statutory part of the English planning system under the Localism Act 2011. This element of formal planning has generated significant interest as it actively requires local communities to lead on producing a Neighbourhood Development Plan (NDP) and is widely recognised as formalising co-produced planning. The paper reflects on research undertaken with a sample of neighbourhoods active in producing a neighbourhood plan, and develops a critical discussion about the experience of those participants. The findings highlight that existing power relations, national priorities, the framing of neighbourhood planning regulations, local political tensions and local resource constraints affect the emerging practices of neighbourhood planners in England. Many groups have adopted conservative positions or are finding their NDPs are being limited by consultants, local authorities or examiners, often concerned with how the NDPs will fare in the contested environment of planning and development in neo-liberal times. While some have contended that neighbourhood planning can form part of a progressive localism and there is some hope for such participatory spaces, our view is that innovation is being constrained if not entirely suppressed. We conclude that reform to neighbourhood planning is needed if it is to realise the ambitions of inclusive, empowered and responsible planning at the very local scale.     

The garden suburb of the Garbatella, 1920–1929: defining community and identity through planning in post‐war Rome

Situated in the industrial district of Ostiense, the Garbatella neighbourhood was primarily designed to house railway and dock workers built by the Istituto per le Case Popolari (ICP), a national building society founded in 1903 dedicated to public low‐cost housing. The Garbatella distinguished itself from other ICP neighbourhoods in Rome by its remote location and its experimental Garden City‐influenced design, adapted for a Roman context. The first period of construction from 1920 to 1923 saw the Garbatella develop along the lines of Ebenezer Howard’s model of the Garden City. While those who planned the neighbourhood continued to aspire to Howard’s ideals, the Garbatella’s rapid expansion (by 1930 it boasted the highest population density in the city) meant that it failed to live up to these aspirations. Despite increased population levels and the construction of larger multi‐functional ‘super‐blocks’, the architecture and planning of the Garbatella contributed to the fostering of a sense of community and a distinct Roman identity. This article investigates the way in which this architectural style established a ‘dialogue’ with and drew inspiration from the city’s rich and varied history, while contributing a new layer to the urban palimpsest of Rome.