Neuroergonomics: Opportunities and challenges of merging cognitive neuroscience with cognitive ergonomics

As with any merger of previously unrelated scientific disciplines, the usefulness of combining cognitive neuroscience and cognitive ergonomics to create the new field of 'neuroergonomics' depends on the significance of the research subjects that could not be addressed if the two fields remained separated. Situations characterized by a scarcity of overt operator behaviour and performance represent one driving force for combining the two fields. In those situations, neurobiological indices of cognitive processes and capacities may emerge as the main, or even exclusive, source of information about the operator's cognitive status and activities. This information is needed, for example, to support adaptive aiding and dynamic function allocation in the context of human-automation cooperation. The utilization of research approaches and measurements more typical of cognitive neuroscience will benefit the field of cognitive ergonomics to the extent that multidimensional psychological constructs (such as situation awareness and mental workload) are reduced to their underlying cognitive operations which are more isomorphic with activity changes in brain regions, circuits and distributed neuronal systems. The transformation of these constructs and paradigms will, in turn, enable cognitive ergonomics to contribute to progress in the field of cognitive neuroscience.     

Individual latent error detection: is there a time and a place for the recall of past errors?

A task carried out in error creates a latent condition that can result in a future undesirable outcome if the error is not detected later. The paper presents a study of the relatively under-researched phenomenon of post-task latent error detection. Focusing on UK naval aircraft maintenance, it was hypothesised that time, location and systems cues influence individual latent error detection amongst naval air engineers who experience the phenomenon. The systems view of human error is combined with a multi-process approach to post-task latent error research, for which findings suggest that distributed cognition across the entire socio-technical system may be influential in post-task latent error detection. Directions for future research will be of benefit to those interested in furthering safety resilience using a systems approach to minimise the consequences arising from latent error.

Relevance to human factors/ergonomics theoryThe nature and extent of post-task latent error detection is explored using a systems approach, for which distributed cognition across the entire socio-technical system appears influential. The aim of current research is to develop interventions to further mitigate for latent errors and thus advance the systems application of ergonomics theory.     

Towards ecological validity of research in cognitive ergonomics

Psychology is one of the main disciplines that have been implied in the development of cognitive ergonomics. For a long time, at least from the 1960s, some researchers in psychology have contributed to research in cognitive ergonomics with the aim of elaborating basic psychological knowledge, (a) with high ecological validity, and (b) with clear relevance to application. This paper stresses the value of this perspective for psychology as well as cognitive ergonomics, and evaluates the results of such an enterprise. Ecological validity is considered as a particular aspect of external validity that enables researchers to transfer findings from experimental situations ('artificial' ones or designed for research purpose) to real work situations ('natural' (obviously, in this context 'natural' includes 'cultural') ones or imposed by comprehension needs). This aspect is discussed as regards classical distinctions like basic/applied research and research/practice. Attention is particularly devoted to the necessary (ecological) context needed by expert operators to implement their work expertise, which is the target of the comprehension aim of cognitive ergonomics. Conclusions are drawn in terms of methods to design and evaluate ecological validity, not only to understand cognitive mechanisms, but also to improve cognitive work conditions and the overall performance of human-machine systems.     

The 'ergonomics paradigm': Foundations,challenges and future directions

The challenges confronting the multi-disciplinary human factors and ergonomics profession are rapidly growing as the pace of technological change redefines the way in which people interact with each other at work and at play. Areas such as human-computer interaction, cognitive ergonomics and information technology management are booming. Calls for greater influence on designing for teams and other large groups of people, i.e. macroergonomics are growing rapidly. All the while, physical ergonomics (e.g. occupational biomechanics, manual materials handling) continues to be a strong focus in the US and around the world. To keep pace with these challenges, each human factors professional should understand the history of the field, remember the complexity of the 'user' and be able to see how their efforts unify and expand the ergonomics discipline. This paper reviews the development of the ergonomics paradigm, explores the challenges confronting the ergonomics discipline and presents ways in which those challenges may be addressed using methodologies familiar to human factors practitioners and researchers.     

Extended cognition and the future of ergonomics

Ergonomics, as the science of work, carries with it an implicit definition of work. Due to the technological development, the nature of work has changed significantly even in the time since ergonomics became established as a science. One response was the change from classical to cognitive ergonomics in the beginning of the 1980s. Cognition, however, is itself the subject of change, most clearly in the transition from cognition in the mind to cognition in the world, with the associated notion of distributed cognition. It is argued that one may be facing yet another change, represented by the notion of extended cognition, which refers to the way in which people use technological and cognitive artefacts to improve their ability to control a situation. Since the information society both increases the number of artefacts one can use, and raises the demands to being in control, the notion of extended cognition can provide a way both to identify the impending problems and outline the solutions.     

The emergence of large-scale logical systems and cognitive ergonomics

With the rapid progress of information technology, the work environments that cognitive ergonomics (CE) should deal with are vastly changing. Among the most important ongoing changes is the emergence of large-scale logical systems. Logical systems are in nature software-based but now grow to be both large-scaled and dynamic, integrating a variety of physical facilities and social mechanisms. The domains include telecommunication and traffic, e-commerce, production control, knowledge management, scheduling and distribution. This paper considers the characteristics of the emerging large-scale logical systems (LLSs) and discusses the ensuing needs that CE has to prepare to meet. As a potential main theme in a generalized system design paradigm, the human-system interaction in the middle abstraction levels is emphasized. The directions of further development of CE to prepare such generalization are accordingly probed. Lastly, it is pointed out that the knowledge society brings the notion of cognitive organization to the attention of CE, with increased complexity in the human part.     

A discipline for research needs in cognitive ergonomics

Research needs in Cognitive Ergonomics are many and varied, as attested by this special issue. However, research is only one component of the discipline to which Cognitive Ergonomics aspires. To ground these research needs, and so to contribute to their future satisfaction, this paper argues for a meta-need, that of relating them to other discipline components, such as scope, practice and knowledge. The past, present and future of Cognitive Ergonomics are reviewed as a discipline, so relating research to these other components. An historical view is taken, which characterizes the past, present and future of Cognitive Ergonomics. The past, and in particular its shortcomings--as lessons awaiting to be learned-- is described in terms of an earlier characterization offered by Long. The present is described in terms of the lessons assumed to have been learned by Cognitive Ergonomics since that publication. The future is characterized in terms of lessons which still remain to be learned, that is, research needs to be satisfied. The lessons remaining are exemplified in the form of a model of planning and control of multiple-task work in medical reception and a design method. Lastly, the paper argues the need for consensus concerning the discipline of Cognitive Ergonomics, including its research knowledge and practices, as a pre-requisite for meeting the research needs identified by the papers in this special issue.     

Ergonomics and praxiology

This paper presents the conceptual foundations of ergonomics and praxiology and the relations between the two disciplines. The influence of the systemic formulation on the change of approach in ergonomics from the earlier mechanistic approach to work and mutual relations between a working human and a machine is pointed out. Also characterized is praxiological analysis and its consequences for ergonomic design. The last part of the paper raises the issue of the importance of design in a praxiological approach and the role of ergonomics and praxiology in developing modern design culture.     

Human work in call centres: A challenge for cognitive ergonomics

Many people are currently working in call centres and much more are expected to work in them in the near future. Call centres are, in a sense, 'modern factories' where services are delivered through information and communication technologies. The human activity within the dynamic and articulated reality of such work settings offers new challenges for cognitive ergonomics. Indeed, work in call centres has to be conceptualized in terms of distributed knowledge. This means that only part of the knowledge needed to carry out any transaction is (or rather has to be) in the mind of the operator; relevant knowledge may be distributed among colleagues in the organization, available and accessible cognitive artefacts in the work environment, and clients. This paper discusses the potential contribution that human factors and cognitive ergonomics can provide in tackling the new and old problems that emerge in organizations where knowledge is an asset.     

Distributed coordination space: Toward a theory of distributed team process and performance

This paper discusses a theoretical framework designed to elucidate the many issues surrounding distributed team performance, emphasizing how work characteristics associated with such teams may alter both the processes and the products emerging from distributed interaction. It is suggested that distributed team performance can best be understood through conceptualization of a coordination space within which distributed interaction occurs over time and distance. The goal is to take a socio-technical approach to distributed team research so that one can explicate both the cognitive consequences of a lack of co-location as well as the social consequences affecting interaction and team development when work is technology-mediated. The overall objective is to present a framework of 'distributed coordination' such that the principles most appropriate for distributed team performance can be developed.     

Toward Jeffersonian research programmes in ergonomics science

Thomas Jefferson believed that scientific research could lead to a fuller understanding of nature, while simultaneously addressing a persistent social problem of national or global interest. The two-fold ideals of this 'Jeffersonian research programme' fit well with the inherently practical aims of ergonomics science. However, in the past, basic and applied concerns have not always been well integrated in the discipline. This article makes a contribution, by proposing a novel metascientific framework consisting of a two-dimensional research space that addresses this problem. One dimension is methodological, representing the trade-off between experimental control and representativeness, while the other dimension is intentional, representing the trade-off between knowledge- and market-oriented purposes. The framework helps explain why it has frequently been difficult to integrate basic and applied concerns, and, at the same time, it shows that a Jeffersonian research programme for ergonomics science can be achieved by opening up degrees of freedom for research that have been comparatively unexplored. The importance of demonstrating contributions to fundamental understanding and to applied practice within the same research programme may be essential for survival and success in a climate of restricted research funding.     

Neuroergonomics: Research and practice

This article describes the characteristics and scope of neuroergonomics, defined as the study of brain and behaviour at work. Neuroergonomics focuses on investigations of the neural bases of mental functions and physical performance in relation to technology, work, leisure, transportation, health care and other settings in the real world. The two major goals of neuroergonomics are to use knowledge of brain function and human performance to design technologies and work environments for safer and more efficient operation, and to advance understanding of brain function underlying real-world human performance. The conceptual, theoretical and philosophical issues at the core of neuroergonomics--that lie at the confluence of cognitive science, neuroscience, and ergonomics--are discussed. Adaptive human-machine systems are then described as an illustration of neuroergonomic research. Several other examples of neuroergonomic research and practice are also described.     

Symvatology: The science of an artifact-human compatibility

According to the premise of ergonomics, system-human compatibility should be considered at all levels, including physical, perceptual, cognitive, emotional, social, organizational, and environmental considerations. This requires quantification of the inputs and outputs that characterize a set of system-human interactions. However, at the present time, no universal matrix for measurement of such compatibility exists. This paper proposes a new science of teleonomic artifact-human system compatibility. Symvatology, coined from two Greek words: 'symvatotis' (compatibility) and 'logos', will aim to discover and understand the various laws governing compatibility relations between people and the natural and artificial systems that surround them. Symvatology, which will observe, identify, describe, perform empirical investigations, and produce theoretical explanations about the natural phenomena of an artifact-human compatibility, should help to advance the progress of the ergonomics discipline by providing a methodology for design for compatibility, as well as design of compatibility between the artificial systems (technology) and humans. The paper also discusses some of the critical concepts of symvatology, including system design complexity, compatibility, entropy, system regulation, non-linear system behaviour, and chaos.     

Human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing in the industry 4.0 context – A scoping review

Industry 4.0 revolution has brought rapid technological growth and development in manufacturing industries. Technological development enables efficient manufacturing processes and brings changes in human work, which may cause new threats to employee well-being and challenge their existing skills and knowledge. Human factors and ergonomics (HF/E) is a scientific discipline to optimize simultaneously overall system performance and human well-being in different work contexts. The aim of this scoping review is to describe the state-of-the-art of the HF/E research related to the industry 4.0 context in manufacturing. A systematic search found 336 research articles, of which 37 were analysed utilizing a human-centric work system framework presented in the HF/E literature. Challenges related to technological development were analysed in micro- and macroergonomics work system frameworks. Based on the review we frame characteristics of an organisation level maturity model to optimize overall sociotechnical work system performance in the context of rapid technological development in manufacturing industries.     

Workware decision support systems: A comprehensive methodological approach to work-scheduling problems

Around-the-clock continuous operations are expanding as global business activity, government de-regulation, flexible manufacturing and lean operation become more common. These developments often require night work, long work hours and/or irregular work schedules. As a result of these requirements, decisions about work schedule assignments are frequently made with little knowledge, information and/or warning. Some of the resulting work-scheduling practices undoubtedly increase operation and worker exposure to health and safety risks. To counter these work-scheduling problems, a comprehensive work schedules knowledge information system is outlined. Within this model, a Workware Warehouse is proposed as an Internet gateway where decision support systems are readily and freely available. This model suggests a new paradigm for work-scheduling ergonomics, one where designing, filling and maintaining a Workware Warehouse is the primary focus of the human factors professional.     

The technology of ergonomics

Attempts by the US Air Force, Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, and Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics in the US, the Harmonization of European Training Programs for the Ergonomics Profession project group in Europe, and the International Ergonomics Association to determine the scope of ergonomics and its technology are reviewed. Based on these data, and the author's own observations of ergonomics internationally, the technology of ergonomics is defined as human-system interface technology (HSIT). HSIT is proposed to have five identifiable components. Each of these components is described, including a brief history of its development. Because it has developed a unique technology, the author concludes that ergonomics has evolved into a unique, stand-alone discipline that can be defined most directly by its technology. Further, that educating the general public about HSIT will increase public understanding of the nature and scope of ergonomics and its potential for enhancing organizational performance and the quality of human life.     

Anticipating the effects of technological change: A new era of dynamics for human factors

Human factors studies the intersection between people, technology and work, with the major aim to find areas where design and working conditions produce human error. It relies on the knowledge base and research results of multiple fields of inquiry (ranging from computer science to anthropology) to do so. Technological change at this intersection (1) redefines the relationship between various players (both humans and machines), (2) transforms practice and shifts sources of error and excellence, and (3) often drives up operational requirements and pressures on operators. Human factors needs to predict these reverberations of technological change before a mature system has been built in order to steer design into the direction of cooperative human-machine architectures. The quickening tempo of technology change and the expansion of technological possibilities has largely converted the traditional shortcuts for access to a design process (task analysis, guidelines, verification and validation studies, etc.) into oversimplification fallacies that retard understanding, innovation, and, ultimately, human factors' credibility. There is an enormous need for the development of techniques that gain empirical access to the future-that generate human performance data about systems which have yet to be built.     

Theoretical issues in general and developmental ergonomics

The purpose of this paper is to suggest a number of critical theoretical issues which revolve around the relationship of the human with technology. This has two aspects: (1) the human response to already developed technology (general ergonomics); and (2) the application of ergonomics principles and data to system design (developmental ergonomics). Ergonomics research which does not focus on the human/technology relationship has little to offer ergonomics. That research must also be directed to the problem of transforming behavioural principles into their physical equivalents.     

Physical neuroergonomics: The human brain in control of physical work activities

One of the important functions of the human brain is voluntary control of movements and motor activities combined with perceptual, cognitive and affective processes. This paper introduces the emerging field of study, named hereby as physical neuroergonomics, that focuses on the knowledge of human brain activities in relation to the control and design of physical tasks. Motor, cognitive and emotional aspects and their inter-relationships in connection to physical ergonomics are considered. A review of recent advances in functional electroencephalography (EEG), with special accent on the time domain analyses of the human brain activity in selected motor tasks, is also presented. The reported studies of isometric elbow-flexion contractions confirmed that the cerebral-cortex system controls the extent of muscle activation and is responsible for smoothing out high-speed motor control processes. Furthermore, the emotional attitudes of the subject to the activity can compel performance beyond acceptable loading through psychological pressure or necessity. The discussed results are important to one's understanding of human limitations and capabilities on a variety of physical tasks, and may ultimately help explain the mechanisms of musculoskeletal injuries at work. These results also underscore the need for a novel approach to workplace studies, i.e. neuroergonomics design.