Toward Jeffersonian research programmes in ergonomics science

Thomas Jefferson believed that scientific research could lead to a fuller understanding of nature, while simultaneously addressing a persistent social problem of national or global interest. The two-fold ideals of this 'Jeffersonian research programme' fit well with the inherently practical aims of ergonomics science. However, in the past, basic and applied concerns have not always been well integrated in the discipline. This article makes a contribution, by proposing a novel metascientific framework consisting of a two-dimensional research space that addresses this problem. One dimension is methodological, representing the trade-off between experimental control and representativeness, while the other dimension is intentional, representing the trade-off between knowledge- and market-oriented purposes. The framework helps explain why it has frequently been difficult to integrate basic and applied concerns, and, at the same time, it shows that a Jeffersonian research programme for ergonomics science can be achieved by opening up degrees of freedom for research that have been comparatively unexplored. The importance of demonstrating contributions to fundamental understanding and to applied practice within the same research programme may be essential for survival and success in a climate of restricted research funding.     

Reliability and validity of findings in ergonomics research

Evaluation of findings in ergonomics/human factors (E/HF) research suffers from misconceived assessments in terms of reliability and validity. Evaluation of E/HF studies published after 2000 confirms these observations. With an eye on these misconceived assessments, the present paper focuses on the consequences of various types of human involvement in (co-)shaping the phenomena to be evaluated. Issues addressed include the questionability of the inter-individual equivalence of findings, the defectiveness of the reliability coefficient as dispersion measure and the elusiveness of intended/presumed measurement as a validity criterion. These deficiencies are at odds with the zeal of E/HF authors to flag their findings as ‘reliable’ and ‘valid’. In particular, positive evaluations of findings may show off as rhetoric. An evaluation procedure of consecutive constituents in a flowchart is proposed as an aid for appropriate evaluations. Various conditions are discussed that may encourage the adoption of correct procedures.     

A discipline for research needs in cognitive ergonomics

Research needs in Cognitive Ergonomics are many and varied, as attested by this special issue. However, research is only one component of the discipline to which Cognitive Ergonomics aspires. To ground these research needs, and so to contribute to their future satisfaction, this paper argues for a meta-need, that of relating them to other discipline components, such as scope, practice and knowledge. The past, present and future of Cognitive Ergonomics are reviewed as a discipline, so relating research to these other components. An historical view is taken, which characterizes the past, present and future of Cognitive Ergonomics. The past, and in particular its shortcomings--as lessons awaiting to be learned-- is described in terms of an earlier characterization offered by Long. The present is described in terms of the lessons assumed to have been learned by Cognitive Ergonomics since that publication. The future is characterized in terms of lessons which still remain to be learned, that is, research needs to be satisfied. The lessons remaining are exemplified in the form of a model of planning and control of multiple-task work in medical reception and a design method. Lastly, the paper argues the need for consensus concerning the discipline of Cognitive Ergonomics, including its research knowledge and practices, as a pre-requisite for meeting the research needs identified by the papers in this special issue.     

A note on ergonomics of theory construction and use

The specialization and technical language in human-machine science leads to increasing difficulties in its understanding by many user groups. These difficulties and their remedies can probably be best understood and described by the concepts and methods of ergonomics. It is the thesis of this paper that developers of theory and applications in general, and the human-machine area in particular can benefit from the use of recent developments in pure mathematics and mathematical logic, in combination with a recent development in theoretical psychology, Psychologic. By introducing standard formalization in theory construction, and combining this with the language of Psychologic (or a formalized 'descendant' of Psychologic), developers of theories and applications in the human-machine science can better meet the different needs of the user groups, concerning both usability and user-friendliness. In the present note, the focus is on human-machine-science in general, and on rehabilitation ergonomics in particular.     

Theoretical issues in general and developmental ergonomics

The purpose of this paper is to suggest a number of critical theoretical issues which revolve around the relationship of the human with technology. This has two aspects: (1) the human response to already developed technology (general ergonomics); and (2) the application of ergonomics principles and data to system design (developmental ergonomics). Ergonomics research which does not focus on the human/technology relationship has little to offer ergonomics. That research must also be directed to the problem of transforming behavioural principles into their physical equivalents.     

Neuroergonomics: Opportunities and challenges of merging cognitive neuroscience with cognitive ergonomics

As with any merger of previously unrelated scientific disciplines, the usefulness of combining cognitive neuroscience and cognitive ergonomics to create the new field of 'neuroergonomics' depends on the significance of the research subjects that could not be addressed if the two fields remained separated. Situations characterized by a scarcity of overt operator behaviour and performance represent one driving force for combining the two fields. In those situations, neurobiological indices of cognitive processes and capacities may emerge as the main, or even exclusive, source of information about the operator's cognitive status and activities. This information is needed, for example, to support adaptive aiding and dynamic function allocation in the context of human-automation cooperation. The utilization of research approaches and measurements more typical of cognitive neuroscience will benefit the field of cognitive ergonomics to the extent that multidimensional psychological constructs (such as situation awareness and mental workload) are reduced to their underlying cognitive operations which are more isomorphic with activity changes in brain regions, circuits and distributed neuronal systems. The transformation of these constructs and paradigms will, in turn, enable cognitive ergonomics to contribute to progress in the field of cognitive neuroscience.     

The emergence of large-scale logical systems and cognitive ergonomics

With the rapid progress of information technology, the work environments that cognitive ergonomics (CE) should deal with are vastly changing. Among the most important ongoing changes is the emergence of large-scale logical systems. Logical systems are in nature software-based but now grow to be both large-scaled and dynamic, integrating a variety of physical facilities and social mechanisms. The domains include telecommunication and traffic, e-commerce, production control, knowledge management, scheduling and distribution. This paper considers the characteristics of the emerging large-scale logical systems (LLSs) and discusses the ensuing needs that CE has to prepare to meet. As a potential main theme in a generalized system design paradigm, the human-system interaction in the middle abstraction levels is emphasized. The directions of further development of CE to prepare such generalization are accordingly probed. Lastly, it is pointed out that the knowledge society brings the notion of cognitive organization to the attention of CE, with increased complexity in the human part.     

Human work in call centres: A challenge for cognitive ergonomics

Many people are currently working in call centres and much more are expected to work in them in the near future. Call centres are, in a sense, 'modern factories' where services are delivered through information and communication technologies. The human activity within the dynamic and articulated reality of such work settings offers new challenges for cognitive ergonomics. Indeed, work in call centres has to be conceptualized in terms of distributed knowledge. This means that only part of the knowledge needed to carry out any transaction is (or rather has to be) in the mind of the operator; relevant knowledge may be distributed among colleagues in the organization, available and accessible cognitive artefacts in the work environment, and clients. This paper discusses the potential contribution that human factors and cognitive ergonomics can provide in tackling the new and old problems that emerge in organizations where knowledge is an asset.     

The validity of self-reported seatbelt use in a country where levels of use are low

The validity of self-reported seatbelt use among low belt use populations in low belt use countries has not been evaluated directly. Nine hundred and ninety drivers were recruited from shopping centers, car parks, and other suitable locations located in Afyon and Ankara cities of Turkey in order to compare the self-reported and observed seatbelt usage rates. Data sets were collected simultaneously from the participants not being aware of having their seatbelt use observed. Participants interviewed in Afyon (n = 301) and Ankara (n = 658) reported seatbelt usage (“always using a seatbelt”) rates of 39% and 45%, respectively. When observed, however, only 47% in Afyon and 70% in Ankara of these drivers actually fasten their seat-belts. It seems that the drivers in both cities exaggerated their use seat belts considerably.     

Assessing the validity of road safety evaluation studies by analysing causal chains

This paper discusses how the validity of road safety evaluation studies can be assessed by analysing causal chains. A causal chain denotes the path through which a road safety measure influences the number of accidents. Two cases are examined. One involves chemical de-icing of roads (salting). The intended causal chain of this measure is: spread of salt --> removal of snow and ice from the road surface --> improved friction --> shorter stopping distance --> fewer accidents. A Norwegian study that evaluated the effects of salting on accident rate provides information that describes this causal chain. This information indicates that the study overestimated the effect of salting on accident rate, and suggests that this estimate is influenced by confounding variables the study did not control for. The other case involves a traffic club for children. The intended causal chain in this study was: join the club --> improve knowledge --> improve behaviour --> reduce accident rate. In this case, results are rather messy, which suggests that the observed difference in accident rate between members and non-members of the traffic club is not primarily attributable to membership in the club. The two cases show that by analysing causal chains, one may uncover confounding factors that were not adequately controlled in a study. Lack of control for confounding factors remains the most serious threat to the validity of road safety evaluation studies.     

光纤光栅器件的长期稳定性及其寿命预期

阐述了紫外写入光纤Ｂｒａｇｇ光栅的光谱特性退化机制及其对器件应用的影响,并给出了预期器件寿命的理论和实验方法。     

Ecological assessment: an initial evaluation of the ecological input in environmental impact assessment reports in Bahrain

Ecological assessment forms a fundamental part of environmental impact assessment. The quality of ecological input in 15 Bahraini EIA reports concerning coastal and marine developments produced between 1996 and 2004 was evaluated using adopted criteria. The overall quality indicated that eight reports were assessed as borderline quality, and seven reports were found to be of poor quality. Major shortcomings included limited new ecological surveys, inadequate evaluation of impacts, neglecting cumulative and long-term impacts, and failing to address adequately mitigation and monitoring measures.     

Towards a human factors and ergonomics integration framework in the early product design phase: Function-Task-Behaviour

Considering the existing methodologies’ hysteresis and cost of the human factors and ergonomics (HF/E) integration in the design phase, this paper attempts to develop a time-saving, less expensive and standard approach for designers to integrate the HF/E from the early design phase. In this study, the HF/E information is embodied by a user manual, which will be continuously improved with the refinement of design. A Function-Task-Behaviour framework is proposed to restate the design process, which involves three steps: (1) Functional specification involves function definition and decomposition according to initial user manual and other requirements; (2) Embodiment refers to conducting task definition and planning to achieve the intended function. SysML is used for task definition and PERT method is applied for task planning; (3) Detailed design refers to the interactions analysis between user’s behaviour and product’s behaviour in the work area. A case study is shown at the end of this paper to illustrate the feasibility of the proposed method in integrating the HF/E from the early design phase to improve the final performance of both product and user.     

Predictive validity and internal consistency of the pre-hospital index measured on-site by physicians

Physiological measures of injury are used as triage tools to identify patients that require treatment in trauma centres. The Pre-Hospital Index (PHI) is based on systolic blood pressure, pulse, respiratory rate, (level of) consciousness, and presence of penetrating injury. The present study evaluated the validity and internal consistency of the PHI. The study was based on 628 patients assessed by physicians at the scene. Mean age was 38.7 years (SD = 24.8), and 65% were male. Motor vehicle collisions caused the injury for 45%. The majority had head/neck (56%) and extremity (45%) injuries. Mean PHI was 4.62 (SD = 5.77), 40% had a PHI of zero, 6% between 1 and 3, 32% between 4 and 7, and 21% greater than 7. The associations between PHI and rates of hospital admission, surgery, ICU treatment, mortality, duration of hospitalization, and length of ICU stay were significant (p < 0.001). A total of 260 (41.4%) patients had major trauma requiring treatment at a trauma centre. A PHI> 3 had 83% sensitivity and 67% specificity for identifying these patients. Internal consistency of the PHI variables was above the acceptable limits. This study has shown that the PHI is a valid and reliable physiological measure of injury severity and field triage tool.     

Effects of physical workload on cognitive task performance and situation awareness

Sixteen participants performed a military operations simulation directing loading of helicopters to weight capacity within an allotted timeframe and subject to a set of decision rules. The participants stood, walked or jogged on a treadmill while performing the simulated cognitive task. Task performance was measured in terms of helicopter loading rate and accuracy. Situation awareness (SA) was measured using a simulation freeze technique and SA queries. Subjective workload was measured using the NASA-TLX. Results indicated a general trend of decreasing SA with increasing physical workload for perceptual knowledge, comprehension and overall SA. Results also revealed higher subjective workload during jogging than during the walking and standing conditions. However, the physical workload manipulations did not appear to affect cognitive task performance. This study has practical implications for defining physical and cognitive workloads in specific dynamic, complex work environments to support operator SA and performance.     

Exploring the validity of patent applications as an indicator of Chinese competitiveness and market structure

An increasing number of studies are using either worldwide Chinese patent applications as an indicator to assess the country’s international competitiveness or applications at the Chinese SIPO as an indicator of the internal structure of innovative activities on its domestic market. Whenever such macro level studies are presented, however, many practitioners tend to express disbelief regarding the validity of patent indicators in this emerging market, where IPR protection is perceived to play a role that differs strongly from that in other economies. This paper, therefore, compares the structure of both patent applications at the Chinese national office and global applications by Chinese inventors. Moreover, it contrasts Chinese application activities with those of other nations. On this basis, it analyses if there is evidence of different underlying motivations for and logics of application that would substantiate such doubts. It concludes that, following WTO accession, the Chinese technology market is finding its specific equilibrium but retains certain persistent particularities. Global filings of Chinese applicants, in contrast, remain biased towards the few major firms that can compete at the world markets for technology.     

A treatise on order in engineering design research

Engineering design research shows a rather fragmented, if not a chaotic, picture. But does it have a hidden order? Can we explore it, or should we impose a reasoning model? This paper looks for the answer in the purpose of engineering design. It is destined to sustain human existence and well being by virtual creation of artifacts and services for the society. To this end, the engineering design discipline should provide a proper body of knowledge. The design knowledge obtained by empirical exploration and/or rational comprehension should be transformed for practical/pragmatic deployment. It was assumed that this purposely streaming of design knowledge gives a unique rationale for engineering design research. Based on this, a framework of reasoning was constructed, including source, channel, and sink categories of knowledge and research of engineering design, respectively. Within each category, research domains, trajectories, and approaches were identified. The semantic relationships of domains, trajectories, and approaches form a hierarchical structure. The proposed framework enables a grounded argumentation about the order of engineering design research, as well as about the articulation of the engineering design knowledge.     

科研、生产融合与工效学评价

文章论述企业要摆脱困境，在竞争中立于不败之地，必须不断推出新产品，满足消费者日益发展的需要。新产品的来源，一是靠自己开发，二是靠外部引进，三是引用科研部门的研究成果，将其转化为产品。研究成果的转化，如何更好地体现工效？作者建议强化科研与生产融合、开展成果与产品的工效学评价，使科研、生产、商业流通形成一体化，实现良性循环     

The situational reflection of reality in activity theory and the concept of situation awareness in cognitive psychology

This article presents new data from the implementation of Activity Theory and integrates it with some concepts of cognitive psychology. The main focus is on orienting activity, which is directed to comprehending and interpreting reality as well as predicting future events' significance for the performance of present events. The concept of orienting activity is directly related to what is known as Situation Awareness (SA) in the US. However, the concept of orienting activity is broader than that of SA. Orientation and comprehension of a situation includes not only conscious and verbally logical components, but also unconscious components. The imaginative elements of the activity and the non-verbalized meaning of the situation are important in the unconscious reflection of reality. This paper describes SA as one of the important function mechanisms involved in the dynamic reflection of the situation. Other important elements of this dynamic reflection are its emotional and motivational components.