Environmentally-controlled non-equilibrium crack propagation in ceramics

A general framework is developed for environmentally-controlled non-equilibrium crack propagation and applied to ceramic materials that exhibit microstructurally-controlled fracture resistance variations. Increasing fracture resistance with crack length, arising from frictional interlocking of predominantly intergranular fracture surfaces, is modelled by the influence of a localized line force behind the crack tip. An indentation fracture mechanics analysis incorporates the fracture resistance variation to describe the inert strength of ceramic materials as a function of dominant flaw size. Non-equilibrium fracture is modelled as the competition between thermally-activated bond-rupture and bond-healing processes, in which the activation barriers are modified by the net mechanical energy release rate acting on a crack. The resulting dependence of crack velocity on mechanical energy release rate is used to describe the strength of ceramic materials as a function of applied stressing rate in a reactive environment. The deconvoluted crack velocity behavior allows both the macroscopic reactive environment fracture resistance and the atomistic lattice traps for fracture to be determined. An implication is that fracture resistance variations are more important in determining observed fracture behavior in reactive environments than in inert environments.     

Multiscale modeling of dynamic crack propagation

A multiscale approach is employed to investigate a center-cracked specimen with the purpose to redefine fracture toughness from the atomistic perspective and to simulate different modes of crack propagation. The specimen is divided into three regions: (1) far field, modeled by classical fracture mechanics, (2) near field, modeled by a multiscale field theory and analyzed by a generalized finite element method, and (3) crack tip atomic region, modeled by molecular dynamics (MD). The exact and analytical solution of the far field is utilized to specify boundary conditions at the interface between the far field and the near field. The interaction between the near field and the crack tip region is described by full-blown interatomic forces. In this work, crystals of perovskite (Barium Titanate) and rocksalt (Magnesia) have been studied. Fracture toughness is defined as a material property associated with instability of the MD simulation. Mode I, Mode II, and mixed mode fracture have been investigated and numerical results will be presented and discussed.     

TiAl基合金的表面渗碳行为及其机理

测定了不同温度下TiAl基合金表面渗碳的动力学曲线,分析了表面渗碳层的结构和组成,研究了TIAl基合金的渗碳机理.结果表明,CO对具有不同扩散速率的Ti和Al进行的选择反应,导致渗碳层的多层结构;TiAl基合金的表面渗碳过程分为两个阶段:渗碳初期和渗碳稳定期.在渗碳初期遵守近似的抛物线增重规律,在渗碳稳定期遵守近似的直线增重规律;在渗碳稳定期,TiAl基合金的表面渗碳反应为零级反应,动力学行为遵守严格的线性变化规则;速率常数与温度的关系较好地遵守Arrhenius公式.     

Prediction of crack propagation paths in the unit cell of SOFC stacks

Planar Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) stacks are multi-material layered systems with different thermo-mechanical properties. Due to their severe thermal loading, these layers have to meet high demands to preserve their mechanical integrity without any cracks initiation and propagation. In this paper, cracks propagation in a typical unit cell of the stack which consists of positive electrode–electrolyte–negative electrode (PEN) is modeled. Based on the mechanical properties of each layer and their interfaces, an energy criterion as a function of crack length is used for the prediction of possible crack extensions in the PEN. An analysis of the competition between crack deflections in the interfaces and crack penetration in layers is presented.     

Fatigue crack initiation and propagation under cyclic contact loading

A computational model for contact fatigue damage analysis of gear teeth flanks is presented in this paper. The model considers the conditions required for the surface fatigue crack initiation and then allows for proper simulation of the fatigue crack propagation that leads to the appearance of small pits on the contact surface. The fatigue process leading to pitting is divided into crack initiation and a crack propagation period.The model for prediction of identification of critical material areas and the number of loading cycles, required for the initial fatigue crack to appear, is based on Coffin-Manson relations between deformations and loading cycles, and comprises characteristic material fatigue parameters. The computational approach is based on continuum mechanics, where a homogenous and elastic material model is assumed and results of cyclic loading conditions are obtained using the finite element method analysis.The short crack theory together with the finite element method is then used for simulation of the fatigue crack growth. The virtual crack extension (VCE) method, implemented in the finite element method, is used for simulating the fatigue crack growth from the initial crack up to the formation of the surface pit. The relationship between the stress intensity factor K and crack length a, which is needed for determination of the required number of loading cycles N_p for a crack propagation from the initial to the critical length, is shown.     

Fatigue crack propagation simulation in an aircraft engine fan blade attachment

This paper discusses the computation of three-dimensional fatigue crack growth rates in a typical military aircraft engine fan blade attachment under centrifugal and aerodynamic loads. The three-dimensional crack growth simulations utilize FRANC3D, a state-of-the-art crack propagation software developed at Cornell University, which uses boundary elements and linear elastic fracture mechanics. With an existing three-dimensional finite element contact stress analysis with a prescribed coefficient of friction (COF) along the contact surface, the displacements and stress intensity factors are calculated on the crack leading edge to yield crack propagation trajectories and growth rates. Due to complex geometry of the fan blade attachment and loading conditions, all three-fracture modes are considered and the associated stress intensity factors (SIF) are calculated using the Crack Opening Displacement (COD) approach. Crack propagation trajectories under mixed-mode conditions are obtained using the planar and maximum tangential stress crack-extension criteria. The fatigue crack in the blade attachment is subjected to an over speed mission cycle that includes high cycle frequencies (i.e., spectrum load) and the crack growth rate is predicted utilizing the Forman–Newman–de Koning (FNK) model. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images of a cracked component from an engine ASMET (Accelerated Simulated Mission Endurance Test) are used to evaluate and compare the simulation results. The calculated SIF's from the simulations indicate a strong Mode-I (K_I) and Mode-III (K_III) interaction at the edge of contact (EOC). However, on the free surface it is primarily a crack opening (K_I) condition only. The crack growth rates are determined using the planar extension criterion which correlates better with the test data than the maximum tangential stress extension criteria.     

A methodology for automatic crack propagation modelling in planar and shell FE models

This paper describes a fast and reliable algorithm for automatic simulations of crack propagation in bi-dimensional and non-planar shell FE models. Thanks to its simplicity, the algorithm can be coded with little effort and in a relatively short time. Moreover, it can be interfaced with the existing FE analysis environment. An automatic iterative process makes it possible to achieve the highest degree of accuracy in the results for the FE model used. Good accuracy can also be achieved for quite coarse meshes.     

Effects of inclusions on formation of acicular ferrite and propagation of crack in high strength low alloy steel weld metal

Abstract

High strength low alloy steel was welded by gas shielded arc welding process without preheating. Microstructural characteristics of the weld metal, morphology of inclusions and crack propagation paths were investigated by means of optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The chemical composition of the inclusion and element distribution across the inclusion were analysed via energy dispersive spectroscopy system. Results indicated relatively large inclusions with diameters of about 0·6–0·8 μm are much more effective in providing nucleation sites for acicular ferrite transformation and refining the microstructure within austenite grain than small ones with diameters of about 0·3–0·5 μm. When the main crack tip encountered inclusion, more crack paths would be initiated from the interface between inclusion and acicular ferrite plates.     

TiAl合金离子渗碳摩擦磨损性能研究

对TiAl合金进行离子渗碳处理以提高其耐磨性.利用摩擦磨损试验机对TiAl渗碳后的室温及600℃高温干摩擦磨损性能进行了研究,采用扫描电镜、能谱、辉光放电光谱仪、X射线衍射仪等手段观察分析了磨痕的形貌和成分以及渗碳层组织与相结构.研究表明,TiAl合金经离子渗碳处理后形成一定厚度的含硬质Ti2A1C的渗碳层,其室温摩擦...     

Crack/fiber interaction and crack growth resistance behavior in microfiber reinforced mortar specimens

Performance enhancement due to microfibers is well known. However, fracture processes that lead to strain hardening behavior in microfiber reinforced composites are not well understood. Crack growth resistance behavior of mortar reinforced with steel microfibers and polypropylene microfibers was investigated in-situ during load application. The polypropylene fibers were inter-ground in the cement mill to enhance the fiber/matrix interfacial frictional stress. A more homogeneous fiber distribution was observed in the inter-ground polypropylene composites compared to the steel microfiber reinforced composites. In steel microfiber reinforced composites the dominant toughening mechanisms were multiple microcracking and successive debonding along the fiber/matrix interface. Fiber pullout, the dominant mechanism in conventional macrofiber reinforced composites was rarely observed. In-situ observation of crack/fiber interaction in the inter-ground polymer fibers also revealed multiple microcracking along the length of the fibers followed by fiber pullout.     

Simulation of crack propagation resistance in brittle media of high porosity

Summary The crack propagation resistance through a porous or microstructurally heterogeneous brittle solid with local variability in strength and stiffness has been simulated. Specifically, the simulation probes the behavior of porous brittle materials in the range of porosity less than those of cellular materials and greater than those of microstructures that are in the category of dilute porosity. The simulation plane consists of a triangular network of points interacting with each other through both linear central force springs and bond angle springs, incorporating an appropriate element of a noncentral force contribution. Explicit microstructural details were incorporated into the model and the simulation was first carried out under conditions of uniaxial tensile strain in order to investigate the mechanisms of subcritical damage evolution, leading to quasi-homogeneous fracture. In order to investigate material strength and stiffness variability on the scale of a representative volume element for coherent fracture events in a crack tip stress gradient, the explicit microstructural results were incorporated into a simulation with boundary conditions characteristic of the displacement field of an infinite Mode I crack. To impart some 3D realism to the primarily 2D simulations a special 2D super-element was devised, which incorporated variability information as might be sampled by a crack front in three dimensions. For a given porosity, in general, only small differences were found between nominally diverse microstructures in terms of their tensile toughness, maximum strength and elastic moduli. The strongest dependence of the overall fracture toughness was found to come from the average porosity. The variability in local element strength and stiffness on the scale of the porosity produced highly tortuous crack paths, roughly on the scale of the chosen representative volume element. The tortuosity of the crack was largest where local variability of strength and stiffness was uncorrelated. Examples of microcrack toughening and crack bridging were observed.     

TiAl合金表面激光重熔热障涂层组织及抗高温氧化性能

为了进一步提高TiAl合金表面等离子喷涂ZrO2-7%(质量分数)Y203热障陶瓷涂层的性能,采用激光重熔工艺对涂层进行处理,研究了激光重熔对涂层微观组织和抗高温氧化性能的影响.用扫描电镜(SEM)分析了涂层形貌和微观结构,同时对其抗高温(850℃)氧化性能进行了考察.结果表明,等离子喷涂热障陶瓷涂层呈典型的层状堆积特征,有一定的孔隙且分布有微裂纹;经过激光重熔处理后,陶瓷涂层片层状组织得以消失,致密性提高,获得了基本没有裂纹等缺陷的重熔层;整个重熔层包括界面没有明显特征的平面晶和上部沿热流方向生长的柱状晶组织.等离子喷涂热障涂层具有较好的抗高温氧化性能,经过激光重熔后可进一步提高其抗高温氧化能力.     

Analysis of subsurface crack propagation under rolling contact loading in railroad wheels using FEM

A general subsurface crack propagation analysis methodology for the wheel/rail rolling contact fatigue problem is developed in this paper. A three-dimensional elasto-plastic finite element model is used to calculate stress intensity factors in wheels, in which a sub-modeling technique is used to achieve both computational efficiency and accuracy. Then the fatigue damage in the wheel is calculated using a previously developed mixed-mode fatigue crack propagation model. The advantages of the proposed methodology are that it can accurately represent the contact stress of complex mechanical components and can consider the effect of loading non-proportionality. The effects of wheel diameter, vertical loading amplitude, initial crack size, location and orientation on stress intensity factor range are investigated using the proposed model. The prediction results of the proposed methodology are compared with in-field observations.     

A finite element analysis of fretting fatigue crack growth behavior in Ti-6Al-4V

There is a need for methodology(ies) to analyze the crack growth behavior under fretting fatigue condition since its experimental determination is a challenging task. A finite element sub-modeling method was used to estimate the crack propagation life in titanium alloy, Ti-6Al-4V specimens. Two contact geometries, cylinder-on-flat and flat-on-flat, were analyzed. The computed crack propagation lives were combined with the results of an experimental study where total fatigue lives were measured. The combined numerical-experimental approach provided the crack initiation lives. The crack propagation life increased with increasing applied cyclic bulk stress in similar manner for both contact geometries. Almost 90% of the fretting fatigue life was spent during the crack nucleation and initiation phases in the high cycle fatigue regime. A parametric study was also conducted to investigate the effects of contact load, coefficient of friction and tangential force on the crack growth behavior. The crack propagation life decreased with increase of these three parameters. This decrease was similar for the contact load and the tangential force in both contact geometries, however, the decrease in the case of coefficient of friction was relatively more in the cylindrical pad than in the flat pad.     

A study on crack propagation and electrical resistance change of sputtered aluminum thin film on poly ethylene terephthalate substrate under stretching

This work is designed to study crack development and resistance changes in aluminum thin films under stretching. Crack development and relative electrical resistance change (?R/R₀) of aluminum thin film on 127-μm poly ethylene terephthalate substrates were investigated as a function of engineering strain. Four thicknesses were considered for the aluminum thin films: 50, 100, 200, and 500 nm. The engineering stress-engineering strain curves were very similar for all thicknesses. Three strain rates were considered in this study: 0.1 min^− 1, 0.5 min^− 1 and 1.0 min^− 1. Before the yield point, there was no stress difference under different strain rates. However, after the yield point, stress was higher at a higher strain rate. It was found that ?R/R₀ was very sensitive to the film thickness. Optical microscope images at high magnification showed that cracks were observed at 2% strain for 100, 200, and 500 nm-thick films and at 8% strain for the 50 nm-thick films. Short lateral cracks (perpendicular to the original cracks) were observed at 20% strain for the 100 and 200 nm thick films and at 30% for the 500 nm thick films.     

Analysis of crack propagation in strain-softening beams

An analytical investigation for the propagation of cohesive cracks in a beam of quasi-brittle material such as concrete is presented using the fictitious crack model (FCM) developed by Hillerborg et al. for concrete. The stress-displacement relation is assumed as a generalized power law function. Expressions for moment-rotation relations are given. The analysis gives the effect of the softening exponent n on the size effect and snapback behavior of beams of softening materials. The effect of the elasticity co-efficient k of the central elastic layer on moment-rotation relation is also determined. A method to determine n and k from experiments is suggested.     

On a thermo-mechanical effect and criterion of crack propagation

A thermo-mechanical effect from partial conversion of fracture work into heat energy during crack propagation is considered with a simple mathematical model. It is assumed that the heat production zone in the vicinity of the crack tip is very small. Thus, the crack propagation process can be viewed as propagation of the crack in elastic material with a point thermal heat source fixed at the tip of the crack. This thermal heat source generates its own temperature and stress fields around the crack tip. As shown in this paper it also generates a negative stress intensity factor that specifies fracture mode I and has to be accounted for in the energetic fracture criterion. The model developed may help to explain many experimental observations such as the increase in the specific surface energy that accompanies an increase in the crack speed and why fracture mode I has a special role in crack propagation phenomena.     

Microstructure and strength of diffusion-bonded joints of TiAl base alloy to steel

Diffusion bonding of TiAl-based alloy to steel was carried out at 850–1100 °C for 1–60 min under a pressure of 5–40 MPa in this paper. The relationship of the bond parameters and tensile strength of the joints was discussed, and the optimum bond parameters were obtained. When products are diffusion-bonded, the optimum bond parameters are as follows: bonding temperature is 930–960 °C, bonding pressure is 20–25 MPa, bonding time is 5–6 min. The maximum tensile strength of the joint is 170–185 MPa. The reaction products and the interface structures of the joints were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron probe X-ray microanalysis (EPMA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Three kinds of reaction products were observed to have formed during the diffusion bonding of TiAl-based alloy to steel, namely Ti₃Al+FeAl+FeAl₂ intermetallic compounds formed close to the TiAl-based alloy. A decarbonised layer formed close to the steel and a face-centered cubic TiC formed in the middle. The interface structure of diffusion-bonded TiAl/steel joints is TiAl/Ti₃Al+FeAl+FeAl₂/TiC/decarbonised layer/steel, and this structure will not change with bond time once it forms. The formation of the intermetallic compounds results in the embrittlement of the joint and poor joint properties. The thickness of each reaction layer increases with bonding time according to a parabolic law. The activation energy Q and the growth velocity K₀ of the reacting layer Ti₃Al+FeAl+FeAl₂+TiC in the diffusion-bonded joints of TiAl base alloy to steel are 203 kJ/mol and 6.07 mm²/s, respectively. Careful control of the growth of the reacting layer Ti₃Al+FeAl+FeAl₂+TiC can influence the final joint strength.     

Fracture behaviour of a TiAl alloy under various loading modes

Tensile tests, compression tests, in situ tensile tests, bending tests, tensile fatigue tests and bending fatigue tests were carried out for a TiAl alloy. Based on the global experimental results and microscopic observations of the fracture surfaces and cracking behaviour on the side surfaces of tested specimens, the fracture mechanisms of fully lamellar (FL) TiAl alloys under various loading modes are summarized as following: (1) Cracks initiate at grain boundaries and/or interfaces between lamellae. (2) When a crack extends to a critical length, which matches the fracture loading stress the crack propagates catastrophically through entire specimen. (3) The crack with the critical length can be produced promptly by the applied load in the tensile and bending test or be produced step-by-step by a much lower load in the fatigue tensile test. (4) For fatigue bending tests, the fatigue crack initiates and extends directly from the notch root, then extends step-by-step with increasing the fatigue bending loads. The fatigue crack maybe extends through entire specimen at a lower fatigue load or triggers the cleavage through the whole specimen at a higher load. (5) In compressive tests, cracks initiate and propagate in directions parallel or inclined to the compressive load after producing appreciable plastic strains. The specimen can be fractured by the propagation of cracks in both directions.