Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values: An individualized regression and clustering approach.

An individualized regression and clustering procedure was used to examine the plausibility of the conceptual frameworks describing the major cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values. 100 undergraduates rated the desirability of a set of social outcomes that systematically varied with regard to the benefits to oneself and another person. 28 Ss later completed 2 measures of social values. A multiple regression equation was then produced for each S using theoretically specified outcome characteristics to predict the desirability ratings. The partial regression coefficients from the multiple regression equations were then clustered into groups of equations representing groups of Ss who used different decision rules in evaluating the outcomes. Results provide evidence of (a) considerable within-S consistency in the use of social decision rules; (b) 6 clusters or groups of Ss who displayed different social values such as equality and individualism; (c) considerable consistency between Ss' cluster membership, their verbalized social values, and their behavior on a measure of social values; and (d) a sex difference in social values, with males being less likely to focus on group enhancement and more likely to focus on superiority. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on achievement: A meta-analysis.

Reviewed 122 studies (listed in an appendix) and compared the relative effectiveness of cooperation, cooperation with intergroup competition, interpersonal competition, and individualistic goal structures in promoting achievement and productivity in North American samples. These studies yielded 286 findings. Three meta-analysis procedures were used: voting method, effect-size method, and z-score method. Results indicate that (a) cooperation is considerably more effective than interpersonal competition and individualistic efforts, (b) cooperation with intergroup competition is also superior to interpersonal competition and individualistic efforts, and (c) there is no significant difference between interpersonal competitive and individualistic efforts. Through multiple regression, a number of potentially mediating variables for these results are identified. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction.

Investigated the impacts of computer-assisted cooperative, competitive, and individualistic instruction on student achievement and attitudes. 71 8th graders were randomly assigned to conditions stratified for sex and ability. 24 Ss (13 boys and 11 girls) were assigned to the cooperative condition, 22 Ss (11 boys and 11 girls) to the competitive condition, and 25 Ss (14 boys and 11 girls) to the individualistic condition. In all conditions Ss completed the same computer-assisted instructional unit. Results indicate that computer-assisted cooperative instruction promotes greater quantity and quality of daily achievement; more successful problem solving; and higher performance on factual recognition, application, and problem-solving test items than does computer-assisted competitive or individualistic learning. The girls' attitudes, compared with the boys', were adversely affected within the competitive condition. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cross-national study on the relations among prosocial moral reasoning, gender role orientations, and prosocial behaviors.

This research examined the correlates of prosocial moral reasoning (PMR) in 2 studies. Study 1 investigated age, gender, and culture group differences in PMR in Brazilian children and adolescents (n?=?265) and U.S. adolescents (n?=?67). Relations between PMR and both prosocial behaviors and gender role orientations in Brazilian adolescents (n?=?136) were explored in Study 2. Self-reflective, internalized reasoning was positively related, and hedonistic reasoning was negatively related, to peer ratings of prosocial behaviors. Femininity was associated with more self-reflective, internalized concerns and with less concerns regarding gaining others' approval. In general, age and gender differences in PMR were similar for both Brazilian and U.S. adolescents. However, U.S. adolescents scored higher on internalized moral reasoning than Brazilian adolescents. Discussion focused on the correlates of PMR in Brazilian and U.S. children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement attributions and self-instructions under competitive and individualistic goal structures.

Investigated whether competitive and individualistic goal structures elicit achievement cognitions that have been associated with helpless vs mastery-oriented children, respectively. 88 5th- and 6th-grade children were administered a novel achievement task in which a high vs low performance outcome was manipulated by varying the number of solvable puzzles across 2 sets of 6 puzzles, within either a competitive or individual goal structure. A "thought-matching" methodology was used to assess the type of frequency of Ss' thoughts. Results revealed that Ss made more ability attributions in the competitive than in the individual condition. In the individual condition, Ss displayed a mastery orientation in that they made more effort attributions and engaged in self-instructions and self-monitoring more than did Ss in the competitive condition. Ability attributions were predictive of Ss' positive and negative affective reactions. Results suggest that Ss were thinking about responses to the question "Was I smart?" in the competitive setting but were thinking about "How can I do this task?" in the individual setting. It is suggested that getting children to think about how to improve their performance may not be compatible with the focus of attention in competitive situations. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Promoting early adolescents' achievement and peer relationships: The effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures.

Emphasizing the developmental need for positive peer relationships, in this study the authors tested a social-contextual view of the mechanisms and processes by which early adolescents' achievement and peer relationships may be promoted simultaneously. Meta-analysis was used to review 148 independent studies comparing the relative effectiveness of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures in promoting early adolescents' achievement and positive peer relationships. These studies represented over 8 decades of research on over 17,000 early adolescents from 11 countries and 4 multinational samples. As predicted by social interdependence theory, results indicate that higher achievement and more positive peer relationships were associated with cooperative rather than competitive or individualistic goal structures. Also as predicted, results show that cooperative goal structures were associated with a positive relation between achievement and positive peer relationships. Implications for theory and application are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of children's attributions and achievement-related evaluations in competitive, cooperative, and individualistic reward structures.

Studied how the reward structure of an achievement setting would affect children's attributions and evaluations of achievement outcomes. An achievement situation describing 2 children successfully and unsuccessfully performing a task in competitive, cooperative, and individualistic reward structures was presented to 400 children across 5 grade levels (1–5). Results show that different evaluative beliefs about the concepts of ability and reward allocation were associated with each reward contingency. Competitive and individualistic structures accentuated perceptions of individual differences and the value placed on achievement outcomes. Evaluations of cooperative vs competitive outcomes were dependent on the level of individual performance within the groups and the success of the cooperative group. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of children's prosocial moral judgment.

Examined (a) the development of children's reasoning about prosocial moral dilemmas (those situations in which the needs of one individual conflict with those of others in a context in which the effects of laws, rules, punishment, authorities, and formal obligations are minimized or irrelevant), and (b) the relationship of structure of prosocial moral judgment to story solution. 125 elementary and high school students responded to 4 moral dilemmas involving prosocial conflicts. Elementary school children's reasoning tended to be hedonistic, stereotyped, approval and interpersonally oriented, and/or tended to involve the labeling of others' needs. Stereotyped images of persons and interpersonally or approval-oriented reasoning decreased in frequency with age, whereas clearly empathic considerations and judgments reflecting internalized values increased in use with age. Empathic moral concerns comprised much of the Ss' moral reasoning. Type of moral judgment was related to the way Ss said a moral conflict should be resolved. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of young children's prosocial moral judgment: A longitudinal follow-up.

34 4–5 yr old children whose prosocial moral judgment had been assessed in preschool were reinterviewed 18 mo later. At the follow-up, Ss used significantly more needs-oriented and approval-oriented reasoning and less hedonistic reasoning than earlier. High religious participation at the time of the follow-up was positively related to the use of needs-oriented reasoning and negatively related to hedonistic reasoning. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation, model attributes, and prosocial behavior.

Examined the personality and situational effects that influence prosocial behavior. 112 safety- and esteem-oriented (as measured by a sentence-completion test) undergraduates were exposed to an emergency situation wherein the experimenter was ostensibly injured by an "explosion." Results indicate that there were significant situational and personality determinants of helping and imitative behavior. Overall, there was more help when Ss were interacting with an active vs a passive model. Esteem-oriented Ss were more likely to initiate helping behavior and were more strongly influenced by high-competence models. In contrast, safety-oriented Ss helped less overall and were more influenced by high-status models. Results are discussed in terms of a Person?×?Situation paradigm of prosocial behaviors. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior.

Previous research has documented that playing violent video games has various negative effects on social behavior in that it causes an increase in aggressive behavior and a decrease in prosocial behavior. In contrast, there has been much less evidence on the effects of prosocial video games. In the present research, 4 experiments examined the hypothesis that playing a prosocial (relative to a neutral) video game increases helping behavior. In fact, participants who had played a prosocial video game were more likely to help after a mishap, were more willing (and devoted more time) to assist in further experiments, and intervened more often in a harassment situation. Results further showed that exposure to prosocial video games activated the accessibility of prosocial thoughts, which in turn promoted prosocial behavior. Thus, depending on the content of the video game, playing video games not only has negative effects on social behavior but has positive effects as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinicians' theoretical orientations: Selection, utilization, and efficacy.

479 clinical psychologists were surveyed regarding their use of and satisfaction with their theoretical orientations, reasons for the selection of their orientations, and the relative influence of their chosen orientations on psychotherapy practice. Contrary to suggestions that clinicians select an orientation largely on inexplicable or accidental grounds, adoption of an orientation was attributed to personal, deliberate choices primarily predicated on clinical experience, personal values, and graduate training. Of 18 possible influences on therapeutic practice, theoretical orientation was rated the most influential and theory of pathology/personality the 2nd most influential, which suggests that clinical psychologists perceive their orientations as pervasive and efficacious therapeutic variables. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Energy psychology: A review of the preliminary evidence.

Energy psychology utilizes imaginal and narrative-generated exposure, paired with interventions that reduce hyperarousal through acupressure and related techniques. According to practitioners, this leads to treatment outcomes that are more rapid, powerful, and precise than the strategies used in other exposure-based treatments such as relaxation or diaphragmatic breathing. The method has been exceedingly controversial. It relies on unfamiliar procedures adapted from non-Western cultures, posits unverified mechanisms of action, and early claims of unusual speed and therapeutic power ran far ahead of initial empirical support. This paper reviews a hierarchy of evidence regarding the efficacy of energy psychology, from anecdotal reports to randomized clinical trials. Although the evidence is still preliminary, energy psychology has reached the minimum threshold for being designated as an evidence-based treatment, with one form having met the APA Division 12 criteria as a "probably efficacious treatment" for specific phobias; another for maintaining weight loss. The limited scientific evidence, combined with extensive clinical reports, suggests that energy psychology holds promise as a rapid and potent treatment for a range of psychological conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perspective-taking and prosocial behavior.

Administered 10 perspective-taking tests (including 4 perceptual and 6 conceptual tasks) and 6 tests of prosocial behavior (including sharing, helping, and comforting) to 102 3-7 yr-olds. Results indicate that, although there was a significant age effect on performance for all but one of the perspective tasks, there was no evidence of a relationship between prosocial interventions and separate perceptual and conceptual indices. It is suggested that test batteries, rather than single task assessments, may be needed if stable indicators of a generalized ability for perspective taking are to be obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of conceptions of prosocial behavior: Information affecting rewards given for altruism and kindness.

82 graduate students, 33 1st graders, and 31 5th graders were presented with information about situations in which one child either helped someone (kindness) or gave something to someone (altruism), with Ss allocating rewards for different actors. Younger children used an additive principle by allocating greater rewards for behavior that led to positive consequences for the actor or avoided negative consequences. Older children and adults utilized a discounting principle by allocating greater rewards for behavior that initially led to no reward or occurred under the threat of harm. Younger and older children allocated greater rewards for altruistic behavior following a previous obligation (facilitory obligation) to the recipient of the act, whereas adults allocated greater rewards for behavior toward a recipient who previously denied a favor to the actor (inhibitory obligation). Ss at all ages allocated greater rewards for actors whose previous behavior was consistently kind or altruistic (high consistency) or who were kind or altruistic to persons other than the recipient described in the stories (low distinctiveness). Results are discussed in terms of causal schemes underlying preconventional and conventional moral judgments and the use of covariation principles in inferences of causality. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heterogeneity of popular boys: Antisocial and prosocial configurations.

This study examined subtypes of popular 4th–6th grade boys (N?=?452). Popular-prosocial (model) and popular-antisocial (tough) configurations were identified by means of teacher ratings and compared with peer and self-assessments and social centrality measures. Peers perceived model boys as cool, athletic, leaders, cooperative, studious, not shy, and nonaggressive. Peers perceived tough boys as cool, athletic, and antisocial. Model boys saw themselves as nonaggressive and academically competent. Tough boys saw themselves as popular, aggressive, and physically competent. Tough boys were disproportionately African American, particularly when African Americans were a minority in their classrooms. Model and tough boys were overrepresented at nuclear social centrality levels. These findings suggest that highly aggressive boys can be among the most popular and socially connected children in elementary classrooms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis: Major theoretical orientations and issues.

Hypnosis is neither a theory nor a therapy, but a psychological process which can be explained using a variety of theoretical perspectives and which can be incorporated into various conceptual schools of therapy. Like the proverbial three men and elephant, different theories of hypnosis emphasize its different facets. Various theories of personality, development, and behavior have described and explained different aspects of hypnosis. Current issues in the literature on hypnosis include hypnosis and memory and cognitive processes, hypnotic susceptibility, interface between hypnosis and physiological parameters, and efficacy of hypnosis as a therapeutic tool. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of competitive behavior as a function of culture, age, and social comparison.

Observed the choice behavior of 868 dyads of 2nd-, 4th-, and 6th-grade children from 5 different cultural backgrounds (Mexican-American, Anglo-American, Japanese, Greek, and Belgian) in the maximizing difference game, an outcome interdependence task where individualistic and cooperative motives were placed in opposition to competitive ones. In 4 cultures, boys received either social comparison feedback or only information concerning their own cumulative scores. As predicted, the level of competitive responding increased as a function of age, social comparison information, and number of trials. Further, there were systematic cultural differences. A newly developed covariation analysis revealed that individual dyad variation accounted for more covariation than the main effects noted above. Hence, several types of within-dyad analyses were performed. Finally, cultures were classified in terms of the characteristic play by dyad members and the results compared with a classification developed by M. Mead (1937), in which she ordered the cooperative, competitive, and individualistic orientations of members of 13 "primitive" societies. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapeutic orientations: A comparison of conceptualizations, interventions, and treatment plan costs.

Delineated patterns of conceptualization and intervention for 4 psychotherapeutic orientations (psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, family systems, and eclectic) and then determined how these patterns related to treatment plan costs. 43 therapists with 1 of the 4 orientations responded to 2 case vignettes that each contained a psychosocial history and portions of a 3rd therapy session for a fictitious patient. Ss were asked to (a) conceptualize about information given by the patient, (b) verbally intervene with the patient, and (c) recommend a treatment plan consisting of types (modality/setting) and amounts (session/days) of treatment. Conceptualization and intervention responses were rated by 3 clinical raters using a psychotherapy judgment rating scale. As predicted, psychodynamic therapists recommended significantly more costly treatment plans. Conceptualization and intervention categories given more focus by the psychodynamic group correlated positively with treatment plan costs, and those categories given more focus by the other therapeutic groups correlated negatively with costs. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)