Characteristics and behavior of the interfacial wave on the liquid film in a vertically upward air-water two-phase annular flow

The behavior of individual interfacial waves on liquid film in vertically upward air-water annular flows has been visualized, observed and analyzed by a pigment luminance method(PLM) which was calibrated with a fiber-optic liquid film sensor. By means of this technique, we distinguished three different types of interfacial waves, i.e. the ripple wave, the ring wave and the disturbance wave. Furthermore we measured the characteristics of these three different kinds of waves, and in particular those of the disturbance wave: i.e. its propagation velocity, its frequency in passing and the distance between two adjacent waves, and then obtained the dependency of these characteristics on the air and water volumetric fluxes j_g and j_l. These results agreed well with the results obtained by other investigators, using an electric needle contact method. A probable mechanism of the occurrence of the ring and the disturbance waves was posited.     

Assessment of swift-ion damage by RBS/C: Determination of the amorphization threshold

A theoretical strategy is developed to quantitatively assess the ion-beam damage as measured by Rutherford-backscattering spectrometry under channeling conditions (RBS/C) in LiNbO₃ crystals. The approach is based on a recent exciton decay model to calculate the concentration of defects generated by the incoming ions as a function of their stopping power. To describe the channeled RBS yield the model takes into account the amorphous (core) as well as the defective halo contributions to the defect tracks caused by the ion impacts. It is concluded that the halo may significantly influence the assessed damage.     

On the exciton model for ion-beam damage: The example of TiO2

The non-radiative exciton decay model recently developed to account for swift-ion-beam damage to LiNbO₃ is, here, discussed within a general physical perspective, taking previous work on alkali halides as a reference. Some general rules for the validity of excitonic models have been put forward, allowing one to predict the irradiation behaviour of other materials. As a new example of application, some preliminary data on the generation and growth of uniform amorphous layers induced by irradiation with Br at 13 MeV and 25 MeV have been performed on rutile (TiO₂). In addition sub-threshold irradiations with Br ions at 9 MeV have been carried out. Defects generation is observed as a result. This effect is explained with the exciton model. Experiments are in the electronic excitation regime and use moderate fluences in the range of 6 × 10¹² to 1.5 × 10¹⁴ cm⁻². The results show similar features to those found for LiNbO₃ and are, in principle, consistent with a non-radiative exciton decay model.     

Theoretical Approach to Pseudo-Mode Neutron Waves in a Moderator

An analysis is presented on neutron wave propagation in moderators in the frequency region above the limiting frequency for discrete eigenvalues, and the distribution of the modulated neutrons in the medium is described by integrals over the continua.

When a discrete eigenvalue reaches the edge of a continuum, a singularity appears in the angular distribution of the waves and causes the discrete mode waves to disappear. Further pursuit of the root of the dispersion law making use of the analytic continuation in the angular integral locates the root on a branch of the complex eigenvalue planes that adjoins the principal branch. This root on the adjacent branch can in certain cases bring about a sharp resonance. i.e. a “pseudo-discrete wave eigenvalue” in the continuum. The conditions for the effective excitation of this kind of pseudo-mode wave were examined, which revealed that for this it is essential that the neutrons causing the limiting frequency have a weak coupling and that their injection be light. It was also demonstrated that the distance from source affects the pseudo-discrete eigenvalue.

An application of this analysis to the case of graphite is also presented.     

Influence of surface morphology and surface area on release behavior of hydrogen isotopes in LiNbO3

Surface processes have profound influence on tritium release behavior in ceramic breeder materials. In this paper, the release behavior of hydrogen isotopes in LiNbO₃ is studied by thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) with focusing on the influence of the surface morphology and surface area. It is found that the amount of surface hydroxyl groups is proportional to the specific surface area and can be decreased by smoothing the surface roughness through heating pretreatment at high temperatures. The isotope exchange reaction between the surface hydroxyl groups and water molecules residue in the system is discussed and turns out to proceed fast. The release behavior of hydrogen isotopes in LiNbO₃ is compared with that in Li₂TiO₃ studied in our previous work. It reveals that LiNbO₃ and Li₂TiO₃ have similar surface environment and similar concentration of surface hydroxyl groups with the level of 10²⁰ m⁻². The formation mechanism of hydroxyl groups on the surface is discussed and a model to explain the experimental observations is proposed.     

Luminescent monitoring of metal dititanium triphosphates as promising materials for radioactive waste confinement

The potential use of luminescent probes for control over the structural state of MTi₂(PO₄)₃ double metal phosphates as host materials for radioactive waste confinement is examined. Luminescence spectra of pure and metal (Al, In, V) and rare-earth (Pr, Sm, Dy) doped MTi₂(PO₄)₃ (M = Li, Na, K) phosphate compounds (in crystalline and related amorphous forms) under X-ray, VUV (synchrotron radiation), UV and visible light excitations are analyzed. Electronic structure and absorption spectra of NaTi₂(PO₄)₃ crystals are calculated by the full-potential LAPW method. The origin of the self and impurity emission bands of MTi₂(PO₄)₃ materials is defined. It was shown that nitrogen laser with 337.1 nm generation wavelength is the most effective excitation source for remote monitoring of incorporation of various types of waste elements into MTi₂(PO₄)₃ hosts and for control over states of these hosts during storage of radioactive waste.     

Effect of antimony incorporation on structural properties of CuInS2 crystals

CuInS₂ (CIS) single crystals doped with 1, 2, 3 and 4 atomic percent (at.%) of antimony (Sb) were grown by the horizontal Bridgman method. The effect of Sb doping on the structural properties of CIS crystal was studied by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and PL measurements. X-ray diffraction data suggests that the doping of Sb in the CIS single crystals does not affect the tetragonal (chalcopyrite) crystal structure and exhibited a (1 1 2) preferred orientation. In addition, with increasing Sb concentration, the X-ray diffraction analysis show that Sb doped CIS crystals are more crystallized and the diffraction peaks of the CuInS₂ phase were more pronounced in particular the (1 1 2) plane. EDAX study revealed that Sb atoms can occupy the indium site and/or occupying the sulfur site to make an acceptor. PL spectra of undoped and Sb doped CIS crystals show two emission peaks at 1.52 and 1.62 eV, respectively which decreased with increasing atomic percent antimony. Sb doped CIS crystals show p-type conductivity.     

Properties of disturbance waves in vertical annular two-phase flow

Disturbance waves play an important role in interfacial transfer of mass, momentum and energy in annular two-phase flow. In spite of their importance, majority of the experimental data available in literature on disturbance wave properties such as velocity, frequency, wavelength and amplitude are limited to near atmospheric conditions (Azzopardi, B.J., 1997. Drops in annular two-phase flow. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 23, 1-53). In view of this, air-water annular flow experiments have been conducted at three pressure conditions (1.2, 4.0 and 5.8 bar) in a tubular test section having an inside diameter 9.4 mm. At each pressure condition liquid and gas phase flow rates are varied over a large range so that the effects of density ratio, liquid flow rate and gas flow rate on disturbance wave properties can be studied systematically. A liquid film thickness is measured by two flush mounted ring shaped conductance probes located 38.1 mm apart. Disturbance wave velocity, frequency, amplitude and wavelength are estimated from the liquid film thickness measurements by following the statistical analysis methods. Parametric trends in variations of disturbance wave properties are analyzed using the non-dimensional numbers; liquid phase Reynolds number (Re_f), gas phase Reynolds number (Re_g), Weber number (We) and Strouhal number (Sr). Finally, the existing correlations available for the prediction of disturbance wave velocity and frequency are analyzed and a new, improved correlation is proposed for the prediction of disturbance wave frequency. The new correlation satisfactorily predicted the current data and the data available in literature.     

Heavy ion beam micromachining on LiNbO3

In this work 3D micromachining of x-cut lithium niobate crystals was performed using the high energy heavy ion microbeam (HIM) at the Tandar Laboratory, Buenos Aires. The samples were machined using ³⁵Cl beams at 70 MeV bombarding energy combined with wet etching with hydrofluoric acid solutions at room temperature. As the ion beam penetrates the sample, it induces lattice damage increasing dramatically the local etching rate of the material. This technique was applied to the fabrication of 3D waveguides with long control electrodes. The resulting structures indicate that well defined contours with nearly vertical sidewalls can be made. The results also show that with fluences of only 5 × 10¹² ions/cm², this technique is suitable for the fabrication of different shapes of LiNbO₃ control-waveguides that can be used in different optical devices and matched with the existing optical fibers.     

Effects of Mg-ion implantation in α-Al2O3 and α-Al2O3:Mg crystals: Electrical conductivity and electronic structure changes

Undoped and Mg-doped α-Al₂O₃ single crystals were implanted with Mg ions, with an energy of 90 keV and a fluence of 10¹⁷ ions/cm². DC electrical measurements using the four-point probe method, between 295 and 428 K, were used to characterize the electrical conductivity of the implanted area. Measurements in this temperature range indicate that the electrical conductivity after implantation is thermally activated with an activation energy of about 0.03 eV both in undoped and in reduced Mg-doped α-Al₂O₃ crystals, whereas the activation energy in oxidized Mg-doped α-Al₂O₃ crystals remains close to that before implantation. The I-V characteristics of the latter samples reveal a blocking behavior of the electrical contacts on the implanted area in contrast to the ohmic contacts observed in α-Al₂O₃ single crystals with the c-axis perpendicular to the broad face, where the Mg ions were implanted. We conclude that the enhancement in conductivity observed in the implanted regions is related to the intrinsic defects created by the implantation, rather than to the implanted Mg ions. The relationship between the oxygen vacancy concentrations at different stages of etching and the changes in the electronic structure, the chemical bonding, and the Al³⁺(2p)/O²⁻(1s) and Mg²⁺(1s)/O²⁻(1s) relative intensities was studied by X-ray Photoemission Spectroscopy.     

Study of Er+ ion-implanted lithium niobate structure after an annealing procedure by RBS and RBS/channelling

Erbium-doped lithium niobate (Er:LiNbO₃) is a prospective photonics component, operating at λ = 1.5 μm, which could be used as an optical amplifier or waveguide laser. We have focused on the structure of Er:LiNbO₃ layers created by 330 keV erbium ion implantation (fluences 1.0 × 10¹⁵, 2.5 × 10¹⁵ and 1.0 × 10¹⁶ cm^?2 1) in the X, Z and two various Y crystallographic cuts of LiNbO₃. Five hours annealing at 350 °C was applied to recrystallize the as-implanted layer and to avoid clustering of Er. Depth distribution of implanted Er has been measured by Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS) using 2 MeV He⁺ ions. Defects distribution and structural changes have been described using the RBS/channelling method. Data obtained made it possible to reveal the relations between the crystallographic orientation of the implanted crystal and the behaviour during the restoration process. The deepest modified layer has been observed in the perpendicular Y cut, which also exhibits the lowest reconstruction after annealing. The shallowest depth of modification and good recovery after annealing were observed in the Z cut of LiNbO₃. Since Er-depth profiles changed significantly in the perpendicular Y cut, we suppose that the crystal structure recovery inhibits Er mobility in the crystalline structure.     

Photostimulated luminescence studies of γ-irradiated KBr1−xIx:TlI mixed crystals

Results on photoluminescence and photostimulated luminescence studies of KBr_1−xI_x:TlI (0.01 and 0.05 mol%) mixed crystals grown in vacuum and air are presented. Photoluminescence spectra of the mixed crystals excited in the A-absorption band of KBr:Tl⁺ exhibited the characteristic emission bands of Tl⁺ ions in KBr:Tl⁺. When excited in the low energy tail of A-band absorption, additional emission bands were observed. Compared with earlier reports, excitation bands observed around 4.8, 4.6 and 4.4 eV are attributed to complex thallium centres of the form TlBr_6−nI_n (n = 0, 1, 2, 3). Photostimulated luminescence of γ-irradiated KBr_1−xI_x:TlI mixed crystals showed the presence of emission bands similar to the characteristic photoluminescence of Tl⁺ ions. The photostimulated luminescence slightly shifted towards the low energy side with increasing iodide composition x. The mechanism of emission in these mixed crystals is discussed. Dose response and storage stability (fading characteristics) in these mixed crystals are reported.     

Er+ medium energy ion implantation into lithium niobate

Erbium-doped lithium niobate (Er:LiNbO₃) is a prospective photonics component, operating at 1.5 μm, which could find its use chiefly as an optical amplifier or waveguide laser. In this study, we have focused on the properties of the optically active Er:LiNbO₃ layers, which are fabricated by medium energy ion implantation under various experimental conditions. Erbium ions were implanted at energies of 330 and 500 keV with fluences of 1.0 × 10¹⁵, 2.5 × 10¹⁵ and 1.0 × 10¹⁶ cm^?2 into LiNbO₃ single-crystalline cuts of various orientations. The as-implanted samples were annealed in air at 350 °C for 5 h. The depth distribution and diffusion profiles of the implanted Er were measured by Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS) using 2 MeV He⁺ ions. The projected range R_P and projected range straggling ΔR_P were calculated employing the SRIM code. The damage distribution and structural changes were described using the RBS/channelling method. Changes of the lithium concentration depth distribution were studied by Neutron Depth Profiling (NDP). The photoluminescence spectra of the samples were measured to determine whether the emission was in the desired region of 1.5 μm. The obtained data made it possible to reveal the relations between the structural changes of erbium-implanted lithium niobate and its luminescence properties important for photonics applications.     

Thermoluminescence properties of isostructural K2YF5 and K2GdF5 crystals doped with Tb in response to α, β and X-ray irradiation

The thermoluminescence (TL) properties of isostructural fluoride K₂YF₅ and K₂GdF₅ crystals doped with Tb³⁺ of different concentrations have been studied in the temperature range from 30 to 500 °C after α, β and X-ray irradiation. Strongly different structures of TL glow curves following α or β irradiation have been found for Tb³⁺ doped K₂YF₅ for all studied concentrations of Tb³⁺ whereas for K₂GdF₅ crystals the different TL curves after α or β irradiation are detected only for heavily doped samples. On the other hand, all the studied materials show similar TL glow curves after β or X-ray irradiation. It has been discovered that K₂YF₅ doped with 1 at.% Tb³⁺ has TL radiation sensitivity to β irradiation of the same order as that of the well known TLD-100 (LiF:Mg,Ti) phosphor and much higher sensitivity to α irradiation. The TL mechanism in K₂YF₅ and K₂GdF₅ doped with Tb³⁺ is discussed by taking into account the TL emission spectra from irradiated samples, which are identical to the emission spectra of the Tb³⁺ ions in these hosts under photo-excitation, and the kinetics parameters obtained with the method of various heating rates.     

Effect of defect accumulation on ion-beam damage morphology by electronic excitation in lithium niobate: A MonteCarlo approach

We present a MonteCarlo approach to the non-radiative exciton-decay model recently proposed to describe ion-beam damage in LiNbO₃ produced in the electronic excitation regime. It takes into account the statistical (random) spatial distribution of ion impacts on the crystal surface. The MonteCarlo approach is necessary to simulate the evolution of the damage morphology with irradiation fluence from the single track regime to the overlapping track regime. A detailed comparison between the morphologies found for sub-threshold and above threshold irradiations is presented. Moreover, a good representation of the Avrami’s type kinetics for amorphization has been achieved and it is in fair accordance with experiment. For moderate fluences where homogeneous amorphous layers are generated, the new approach predicts that the amorphous and crystalline layers are separated by a diffuse (thick) boundary that includes a mixed amorphous-crystalline composition.     

Study of neodymium extraction in molten fluorides by electrochemical co-reduction with aluminium

This work describes the co-deposition process of Al-Nd alloys in LiF-CaF₂ medium (79-21% mol) on tungsten electrode at 860 °C using electrochemical techniques: cyclic and square wave voltammetries and potentiostatic electrolyses. Specific peaks of Al-Nd alloys formation were observed in cyclic voltammograms between the reduction waves of Nd(III) and Al(III), in a fluoride melt containing neodymium and aluminium ions. The potential difference measured between the solvent reduction and the alloys formation should allow expecting an extraction efficiency of 99.99% by the use of the co-reduction process. The intermetallic compounds (Al₁₁Nd₃, Al₃Nd, AlNd₂ and AlNd₃) were obtained and characterised by Scanning Electron Microscopy with EDS probe. The validity of the process was tested by carrying neodymium extraction in the form of Al-Nd alloy; the extraction efficiency was more than 95%.     

Wall pressure measurements of flooding in vertical countercurrent annular air-water flow

An experimental study of flooding in countercurrent air-water annular flow in a large diameter vertical tube using wall pressure measurements is described in this paper. Axial pressure profiles along the length of the test section were measured up to and after flooding using fast response pressure transducers for three representative liquid flow rates representing a wide range of liquid Reynolds numbers (Re_L = 4Γ/μ; Γ is the liquid mass flow rate per unit perimeter; μ is the dynamic viscosity) from 3341 to 19,048. The results show that flooding in large diameter tubes cannot be initiated near the air outlet and is only initiated near the air inlet. Fourier analysis of the wall pressure measurements shows that up to the point of flooding, there is no dominant wave frequency but rather a band of frequencies encompassing both the low frequency and the broad band that are responsible for flooding. The data indicates that flooding in large diameter vertical tubes may be caused by the constructive superposition of a plurality of waves rather than the action of a single large-amplitude wave.     

Study on the behavior of oxygen atoms in swift heavy ion irradiated CeO2 by means of synchrotron radiation X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

To study the effects of swift heavy ion irradiation on cerium dioxide (CeO₂), CeO₂ sintered pellets were irradiated with 200 MeV Xe ions at room temperature. For irradiated and unirradiated samples, the spectra of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were measured. XPS spectra for the irradiated samples show that the valence state of Ce atoms partly changes from +4 to +3. The amount of Ce³⁺ state was quantitatively obtained as a function of ion-fluence. The relative amount of oxygen atom displacements, which are accompanied by the decrease in Ce valence state, is 3-5%. This value is too large to be explained in terms of elastic interactions between CeO₂ and 200 MeV ions. The experimental result suggests the contribution of 200 MeV Xe induced electronic excitation to the displacements of oxygen atoms.     

A study of accelerating systems operating with waves similar to H

In the period 1947–1957 linear accelerating systems using vibrations similar to H-waves, in view of the impossibility of their accurate calculation and the necessity for prolonged experimental selection, were rejected without good reasons. Our systematic measurements have shown the considerable advantage of volume resonators operating with waves of this type over the widely used resonators working with the E₀₁₀ wave.Linear accelerating systems using waves similar to H can be used up to particle speeds equal to C without changing theirbasic structure, which is impossible with the E₀₁₀ wave.The mentioned system can be used widely to accelerate ions since it gives long waves in small equipment and a reduction in the required high-frequency power is shown particularly strongly at low particle speeds.The main results were reported at the conference of the Physicotechnical Institute, Academy of Sciences, UkrSSR in November, 1959.