Scientific rewards and conflicts of ethical choices in human subjects research.

The primary responsibility of the American Psychological Association's (APA's) Committee on Standards in Research (CSR) is to advise the APA on issues and standards related to the protection of human participants in psychological research. A related goal is to enhance the use of good ethical practices by APA members. The purpose of this article is to foster the view of research ethics not as an affront to the integrity of sound research, but as opportunities for scientific rewards, including increased understanding of the meaning of data, enhanced recruitment, and the inclusion of more representative samples. Three ethical practices are discussed as examples of this general premise: respect for confidentiality, use of debriefing, and assurance that participants are noncoerced volunteers. The CSR's intent is to promote consideration of these issues, not to promulgate specific guidelines or procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fixed-ratio schedules increase generalized self-control: Preference for large rewards despite high effort or punishment.

Three experiments investigated the effects of FR reinforcement on generalized self-control involving high effort and punishment. In Experiment 1, rats received food in a runway for the completion of each round trip (continuous-reinforcement group) or every fifth round trip (FR group). Control rats received food at the same temporal intervals as these groups but without any instrumental requirement. When all rats were next given a series of choices between a large food reward requiring high lever force versus a small reward requiring low lever force, the FR rats showed the greatest self-control. In Experiments 2 and 3, rats were rewarded on a continuous or FR schedule followed by choice between a large food reward accompanied by intermittent shock vs a small or absent food reward without shock. The FR rats again showed the greatest self-control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral family counseling and naltrexone for male opioid-dependent patients.

Men (N=124) entering treatment for opioid dependence who were living with a family member were randomly assigned to one of two 24-week treatments: (a) behavioral family counseling (BFC) plus individual treatment (patients had both individual and family sessions and took naltrexone daily in presence of family member) or (b) individual-based treatment only (IBT; patients were given naltrexone and were asked in counseling sessions about their compliance, but there was no family involvement). BFC patients, compared with their IBT counterparts, ingested more doses of naltrexone, attended more scheduled treatment sessions, had more days abstinent from opioids and other drugs during treatment and during the year after treatment, and had fewer drug-related, legal, and family problems at 1-year follow-up. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited-resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative.

The current research tested the hypothesis that making many choices impairs subsequent self-control. Drawing from a limited-resource model of self-regulation and executive function, the authors hypothesized that decision making depletes the same resource used for self-control and active responding. In 4 laboratory studies, some participants made choices among consumer goods or college course options, whereas others thought about the same options without making choices. Making choices led to reduced self-control (i.e., less physical stamina, reduced persistence in the face of failure, more procrastination, and less quality and quantity of arithmetic calculations). A field study then found that reduced self-control was predicted by shoppers' self-reported degree of previous active decision making. Further studies suggested that choosing is more depleting than merely deliberating and forming preferences about options and more depleting than implementing choices made by someone else and that anticipating the choice task as enjoyable can reduce the depleting effect for the first choices but not for many choices. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporal discounting of rewards in patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.

Patients with bipolar disorder (BD) and schizophrenia (SZ) often show decision-making deficits in everyday circumstances. A failure to appropriately weigh immediate versus future consequences of choices may contribute to these deficits. We used the delay discounting task in individuals with BD or SZ to investigate their temporal decision making. Twenty-two individuals with BD, 21 individuals with SZ, and 30 healthy individuals completed the delay discounting task along with neuropsychological measures of working memory and cognitive function. Both BD and SZ groups discounted delayed rewards more steeply than did the healthy group even after controlling for current substance use, age, gender, and employment. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that discounting rate was associated with both diagnostic group and working memory or intelligence scores. In each group, working memory or intelligence scores negatively correlated with discounting rate. The results suggest that (a) both BD and SZ groups value smaller, immediate rewards more than larger, delayed rewards compared with the healthy group and (b) working memory or intelligence is related to temporal decision making in individuals with BD or SZ as well as in healthy individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Health-damaging personality traits and verbal–autonomic dissociation: The role of self-control and environmental control.

This study tested predictions derived from D. C. Glass's (1977) uncontrollability model regarding the link between control-related personality attributes and the dissociation of affective and autonomic responses to stress. Pressured drive, measured by the Jenkins Activity Survey (D. S. Krantz, D. C. Glass, & M. L. Snyder, 1974), and emotional defensiveness, measured by the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (D. P. Crowne & D. Marlowe, 1964), were examined in relation to cardiovascular and affective responses to mental arithmetic in 31 male and 26 female college students. Pressured drive was positively associated with cardiovascular reactivity but unrelated to affect ratings. In contrast, emotional defensiveness was unrelated to cardiovascular reactivity, but high scores were associated with smaller increases in self-reported negative affect. The findings suggest that these potentially health-damaging personality attributes may influence stress response measures through independent mechanisms for maintaining environmental control and self-control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Freedom and therapy: From self-liberation to self-control.

This article focuses on how subjective feelings of freedom and lack of freedom can influence a client's motivation to change. Freedom can be expressed as a positive desire to act (freedom to), or by the negative impulse escape constraints (a freedom from). More often, it is the negative aspect that brings client to therapy: the desire to be liberated from the burden of thoughts and emotions which restrict their freedom to be, or to act, as they wish. In therapy, the positive aspect of freedom is often raised in the context of establishing autonomy and self-regulation as desirable goals. But shifting from notions of self-liberation to those of self-control involves exploring the complex interaction between subjective feelings of freedom, and objective limits on freedom to act. Clients may become fearful at what they perceive as too much freedom to act, in the absence of meaningful limits on choice and behavioral possibilities. This "freedom anxiety" as a clinical condition can inhibit the potential for change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress and drug-cue-induced craving in opioid-dependent individuals in naltrexone treatment.

Background: Naltrexone is a nonaddictive medication that blocks the euphoric effects of opioids. However, naltrexone treatment is associated with high rates of noncompliance and opioid relapse, possibly because it does not reduce stress and protracted withdrawal symptoms during early recovery. Prior clinical and preclinical research has indicated that both stress and drug-cue-related arousal response is associated with craving and vulnerability to relapse in a range of drug-using populations. Aims: To examine opioid craving and the subjective and cardiovascular response to stress and drug cues in naltrexone-treated opioid abusers. Method: Eleven men and three women engaged in naltrexone treatment for opioid dependence. They were exposed to personalized stress, drug-cue, and neutral-relaxing imagery in a single laboratory session. Subjective (craving, emotion) and cardiovascular (heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure) measures were assessed. Results: Stress and drug-cue-related imagery significantly increased opioid craving, anxiety, and negative emotions and significantly decreased positive emotions compared to neutral imagery. Selective emotional responses were greater in the stress condition than in the drug-cue condition. Only stress-related imagery was associated with an increased cardiovascular response. Conclusions: Naltrexone-treated opioid abusers demonstrate vulnerability to stress and drug-cue-induced craving and arousal responses that may contribute to the high rates of noncompliance and relapse among opioid-dependent individuals undergoing naltrexone treatment. Pharmacological and behavioral interventions that specifically target the negative affectivity that co-occurs with drug-cue and stress-induced craving could be of benefit in improving naltrexone treatment outcomes in opioid dependence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Where self-control comes from: On the development of self-control and its relationship to deviance over time.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 46(3) of Developmental Psychology (see record 2010-08074-015). the keys for Figures 3 and 5 on page 252 are incorrect. The corrected keys are printed below. The figures have been updated without the application of a transformation, permitting a more straightforward interpretation.] The current study tested a set of interrelated theoretical propositions based on self-control theory (M. R. Gottfredson & T. Hirschi 1990). Data were collected on 1,155 children at 4.5 years, at 8.5 years (3rd grade), and at 10.5 years (5th grade) as part of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development longitudinal study over a 6-year period. Findings based on simple structural equation models and latent growth modeling of developmental trajectories suggest that (a) there was great construct stability of self-control and deviance over the 6-year period, (b) there was positive growth in self-control trajectory over time, (c) parenting predicted this trajectory but also explained variability in self-control at initial status, (d) there was a declining deviance trajectory over time, (e) self-control at initial status reduced the unexplained deviance variance by 44.8%, and (f) both the intercept and slope factors shared about 75% of the variance based on growth-to-growth curve predictive models of self-control and deviance. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for self-control theory and future empirical work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consulting for diversity and social justice: Challenges and rewards.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 60(4) of Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research (see record 2008-17523-006). The author refers to "Paul Winn." The referenced author's last name was printed incorrectly. The correct spelling is Winum.] Consulting and training for cultural diversity is both challenging and rewarding. This article issues a call to face the challenges of diversity consulting and describes strategies and approaches for successful work. Using examples from the author's practice, the author calls on consultants to (1) get up to speed with knowledge about diversity and social justice, (2) avoid consultations that are too superficial, (3) balance content and process, (4) find ways to sustain themselves and their clients, and (5) work for the Common Good. A social justice frame is seen as a necessary adjunct to promoting equity and excellence in organizations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Specificity of planning in adult self-control: An applied investigation.

Conducted an 11-wk study improvement program reviewing self-control and study skills techniques with a low-grades (D+ average) and a high-grades (B average) group. 48 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 3 conditions; daily (highly specific) plans, monthly (moderately specific) plans, and no plans. Process and outcome measures afforded analyses of compliance with programmatic instructions, effects on self-monitored study time, and, with respect to 65 low-grades and 20 high-grades controls, effects on grades and study habits and attitudes. The 3 major findings are as follows: (a) Monthly planning, not daily planning as predicted, increased study time and improved study habits compared with the no-plan comparison intervention; (b) the program improved grades somewhat; and (c) low-grades Ss expected more but complied less than high-grades Ss. The discussion includes analysis of potential inhibitory and facilitatory effects of highly vs moderately specific planning in adult self-regulation and contributions of the findings toward understanding self-regulatory failure. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of paradoxical and self-control directives in counseling.

32 students who reported having a serious and recurring procrastination problem were randomly assigned to either of 2 directive interview conditions (paradoxical or self-control) or to a no-interview control condition. Dependent measures included weekly S ratings of problem frequency, perceptions of problem controllability, expectation to change, and satisfaction with behavior, as well as a measure of Ss' perceptions of the interviewer. Results after 4 wks indicate that both directive groups exhibited generally greater improvement over time than controls and that the opposing forms of direction promoted different change patterns on self-report measures of problem frequency and controllability. Specifically, Ss exposed to paradoxical directives reported a sharper rate of change in their procrastination without viewing their problem behavior as significantly more controllable. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reduction of perseverative error in patients with schizophrenia using monetary feedback.

The influence of monetary feedback on Wisconsin Card Sort Test (WCST) performance of 14 male schizophrenics was investigated. Patients were administered the test under standard instructions and with monetary feedback in counterbalanced order. Monetary reinforcement reduced perseverative errors and increased correct responses (p     

Self-affirmation and self-control: Affirming core values counteracts ego depletion.

Research has established that acts of self-control deplete a resource required for subsequent self-control tasks. The present investigation revealed that a psychological intervention—self-affirmation—facilitates self-control when the resource has been depleted. Experiments 1 and 2 found beneficial effects of self-affirmation on self-control in a depleted state. Experiments 3 and 4 suggested that self-affirmation improves self-control by promoting higher levels (vs. lower levels) of mental construal. Self-affirmation therefore holds promise as a mental strategy that reduces the likelihood of self-control failure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Where self-control comes from: On the development of self-control and its relationship to deviance over time": Correction.

Reports an error in "Where self-control comes from: On the development of self-control and its relationship to deviance over time" by Alexander T. Vazsonyi and Li Huang (Developmental Psychology, 2010[Jan], Vol 46[1], 245-257). The keys for Figures 3 and 5 on page 252 are incorrect. The corrected keys are provided. The figures have been updated without the application of a transformation, permitting a more straightforward interpretation. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-24671-014.) The current study tested a set of interrelated theoretical propositions based on self-control theory (M. R. Gottfredson & T. Hirschi 1990). Data were collected on 1,155 children at 4.5 years, at 8.5 years (3rd grade), and at 10.5 years (5th grade) as part of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development longitudinal study over a 6-year period. Findings based on simple structural equation models and latent growth modeling of developmental trajectories suggest that (a) there was great construct stability of self-control and deviance over the 6-year period, (b) there was positive growth in self-control trajectory over time, (c) parenting predicted this trajectory but also explained variability in self-control at initial status, (d) there was a declining deviance trajectory over time, (e) self-control at initial status reduced the unexplained deviance variance by 44.8%, and (f) both the intercept and slope factors shared about 75% of the variance based on growth-to-growth curve predictive models of self-control and deviance. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for self-control theory and future empirical work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement American style: The rewards and costs of individualism.

Suggests that the US is a success-oriented society whose attitudes toward achievement can be traced to the Protestant heritage and its emphasis on individualism and the work ethic. Although they are implied to have universal significance, it is contended that contemporary theories of achievement and achievement motivation are rooted in individualism and may have validity primarily for American and similar cultures. Concerns about the erosion of the work ethic and the destructive aspects of individualism are discussed. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Guilty pleasures and grim necessities: Affective attitudes in dilemmas of self-control.

Do self-control situations pit controlled reason against impulsive emotion, or do some emotions support the controlled choice? A pilot study of self-control attitudes found ambivalence between hedonic affect associated with short-term perspectives and self-conscious affect associated with the long term. In Study 1, negative self-conscious affect accompanied higher self-control among delayed-cost dilemmas ("guilty pleasures") but not delayed-benefit dilemmas ("grim necessities"). Study 2 showed that hedonic affect was more accessible than was self-conscious affect, but this difference was less among high self-control dilemmas. In Study 3, unobtrusively primed self-conscious emotion words caused dieters to eat less if the emotions were negative, more if positive. Hedonic positive and negative emotion words had the opposite effect. Self-conscious emotional associations, then, can support self-control if brought to mind before the chance to act. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Computerized behavior therapy for opioid-dependent outpatients: A randomized controlled trial.

The authors evaluated the efficacy of an interactive, computer-based behavioral therapy intervention, grounded in the community reinforcement approach (CRA) plus voucher-based contingency management model of behavior therapy. Our randomized, controlled trial was conducted at a university-based research clinic. Participants comprised 135 volunteer adult outpatients who met DSM-IV criteria for opioid dependence. All participants received maintenance treatment with buprenorphine and were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: (a) therapist-delivered CRA treatment with vouchers, (b) computer-assisted CRA treatment with vouchers, or (c) standard treatment. The therapist-delivered and computer-assisted CRA plus vouchers interventions produced comparable weeks of continuous opioid and cocaine abstinence (M = 7.98 and 7.78, respectively) and significantly greater weeks of abstinence than the standard intervention (M = 4.69; p     

Assessment of agonist and antagonist effects of tramadol in opioid-dependent humans.

The subjective, behavioral, and physiologic effects of racemic tramadol, an analgesic with low abuse liability and dual mu-opioid agonist and monoamine reuptake actions, were evaluated in 2 clinical pharmacology studies in dependent opioid abusers. In the withdrawal precipitation study, participants (N = 8) were maintained on methadone 60 mg/day orally and challenged with intramuscular tramadol, hydromorphone, naloxone, and placebo 20 hr after methadone administration. In the withdrawal suppression study, participants (N = 6) were maintained on hydromorphone given orally 10 mg 4 times daily, and spontaneous opioid withdrawal was produced by withholding doses for 23 hr. During the experimentally induced withdrawal, oral tramadol, hydromorphone, naltrexone, and placebo were given. In both studies a comprehensive panel of participant-rated, observer-rated, and physiologic measures were collected. In both studies, naloxone and naltrexone significantly increased measures of opioid withdrawal, whereas tramadol showed no discernible antagonist effects. In contrast, tramadol's pattern of effects was more similar to that of hydromorphone and suggestive of mild opioid-agonist effects (withdrawal suppression), though not to a statistically significant degree. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis.

According to the strength model, self-control is a finite resource that determines capacity for effortful control over dominant responses and, once expended, leads to impaired self-control task performance, known as ego depletion. A meta-analysis of 83 studies tested the effect of ego depletion on task performance and related outcomes, alternative explanations and moderators of the effect, and additional strength model hypotheses. Results revealed a significant effect of ego depletion on self-control task performance. Significant effect sizes were found for ego depletion on effort, perceived difficulty, negative affect, subjective fatigue, and blood glucose levels. Small, nonsignificant effects were found for positive affect and self-efficacy. Moderator analyses indicated minimal variation in the effect across sphere of depleting and dependent task, frequently used depleting and dependent tasks, presentation of tasks as single or separate experiments, type of dependent measure and control condition task, and source laboratory. The effect size was moderated by depleting task duration, task presentation by the same or different experimenters, intertask interim period, dependent task complexity, and use of dependent tasks in the choice and volition and cognitive spheres. Motivational incentives, training on self-control tasks, and glucose supplementation promoted better self-control in ego-depleted samples. Expecting further acts of self-control exacerbated the effect. Findings provide preliminary support for the ego-depletion effect and strength model hypotheses. Support for motivation and fatigue as alternative explanations for ego depletion indicate a need to integrate the strength model with other theories. Findings provide impetus for future investigation testing additional hypotheses and mechanisms of the ego-depletion effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)