A qualitative study of experts' conceptualizations of supervisee reflectivity.

Reflectivity in its most basic sense is focused contemplation and has been touted as an important skill for professionals in practice. As part of an effort to form an integrated theory of reflectivity as it occurs in clinical supervision, 5 experts in practitioner development were interviewed about the attributes of supervisee reflectivity. Respondents' statements from initial interviews were categorized and presented to respondents for discussion in a 2nd set of interviews. Grounded theory analysis (A. Strauss & J. Corbin, 1990) was used to derive a set of final categories. These categories included (a) causal conditions of new information and uncertainty; (b) intervening conditions of supervisee personality, supervisee cognitive capacity, and supervision environment; (c) the process of the supervisee's search for understanding of phenomena in the counseling session; and (d) change in the supervisee's perception, behavior, or long-term growth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative supervisory events: Effects on supervision and supervisory alliance.

What are the consequences when a supervisee experiences a negative event in supervision? Supervisee developmental level, supervisory working alliance, trainee attachment style, and negative supervisory events were examined to determine their relationship with one another. Findings underscore the destructive impact negative supervisory events can have on supervision and supervisee development. This impact varies depending upon a supervisee's developmental level or the strength of the supervisor--supervisee working alliance. Supervisors are encouraged to be more supportive of supervisees in early development, and suggestions are offered on ways to ensure a strong supervisory relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling supervision by developmental level.

Examined the validity of an elaboration of C. Stoltenberg's (see record 1981-06282-001) developmental counseling supervision model with 71 supervisors (mean age 37.5 yrs) and 107 supervisees (mean age 30.2 yrs) from 9 university counseling centers, resulting in 107 supervision dyads. A supervision level scale (SLS) was used to classify predominant developmental level of supervisees and supervision environments to avoid the use of training level as a proxy for developmental level. Supervisors completed the SLS, and supervisors and supervisees reported their satisfaction and opinion of supervisee's learning. Supervisors were found to generally match the level of their supervision to the level of the supervisee. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) revealed that supervisee developmental level was related to mean semesters of supervisee supervised, but not nonsupervised, counseling experience. Supervision environment level was also related to mean semesters of supervisee supervised, but not nonsupervised, counseling experience. Mean satisfaction and learning ratings of supervisors and supervisees did not differ by person–environment congruency. Results provide support for conceptualizing supervisees and supervision environments developmentally, although not for congruency. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisory theory into practice: Differential perception of supervision by Ekstein, Ellis, Polster, and Rogers.

58 experienced supervisors (median age 35.1 yrs) evaluated videotaped supervision sessions conducted by either Rudolph Ekstein, Albert Ellis, Erving Polster, or Carl Rogers, who had all supervised the same therapist, based on the same work sample. The 4 supervisors, originators or major interpreters of their theoretical models, were perceived as differing in attractiveness and in their use of the critic, model, and nurturing roles identified by B. Apfelbaum (1958); they also were perceived as differing in the extent to which they functioned as counselor and as teacher and in the extent to which their work focused on the supervisee's technical skills, on his/her use of his/her personal reactions and feelings, and on case conceptualization. These differences generally were consistent with theory. Raters did not perceive the supervisee or client differentially across supervision sessions, although the supervisee was perceived to be differentially satisfied with supervision. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Narrative approaches to supervision and case formulation.

Reviews the literature on the use of narrative in personality theory and its application in the clinical practice literature. A constructionist approach to supervision is proposed that integrates narrative approaches with the supervisory process. Clinical supervision and case formulation are discussed as the result of a dialog between the supervisor and supervisee about the client's story, the supervisee's story about the client, and the professional story offered by the supervisor, resulting in a new case formulation and treatment plan. The new narrative allows a collaborative, empathic approach to both the supervisee and client. Case examples of a single male in his early 20s with complaints of feeling overwhelmed, nervous, and experiencing sleep and appetite disturbances, and of a single mother in her early 30s presenting with concerns about raising her 4-yr-old son illustrate the narrative approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

“From the margins to the center”: Moving towards a resilience-based model of supervision for queer people of color supervisors.

Informed by the authors’ experiences as queer people of color, this article proposes a model of supervision that encourages queer people of color supervisors to draw upon their own histories of oppression and resilience in providing culturally competent and affirmative supervision to trainees. The Queer People of Color Resilience-Based Model of Supervision references models of supervision that typically focus on supervisee development to explore ways in which supervisor development may also benefit the supervision process. This model integrates the multicultural supervision domains (Ancis & Ladany, 2001) with queer models of supervision (Halpert, Reinhardt, & Toohey, 2007) in order to address how racism and heterosexism both may influence the supervision process. The authors share critical incidents from their own development as supervisors, a case study, and specific suggestions for supervision to bring attention to the unique concerns of queer people of color who provide supervision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy supervision: A cognitive–behavioral model.

A series of phases is proposed for the supervisory session. The goals of this model are to reduce negative emotions in the supervisee, to teach the supervisee to form and test hypotheses about the client's behaviors, and to teach the supervisee specific behavioral techniques. This model is also advanced in hopes of stimulating research on the little studied process of psychotherapy supervision. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in supervision as counselors and supervisors gain experience: A review.

Reviews research bearing on whether and how counselors and supervisors receive or give different types of supervision of psychotherapy as they each gain experience. Most theories describing changes in supervision of counselors as they gain experience are similar. They posit changes in the supervisee, with supervision environments being matched to the changing needs of the supervisee. There are 3 theories concerning how the supervisor changes as he/she gains experience. Empirical findings are consistent with theories of counselor development but only weakly supportive of the theory that actual supervision environments are matched to supervisee needs. Empirical findings on changes in supervisors as they gain experience reveal few differences in supervisors at any level beyond the master's degree. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation and supervisor-supervisee matching on interns' perceptions of supervision.

Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation on supervisees' perceptions of supervisors' models, roles, and foci were studied, as were variables influencing quality of supervision and supervisee autonomy. 84 interns from 32 nationwide training sites were surveyed. Cognitive-behavioral supervisors were perceived to be in a consultant role and to focus on skills and strategies more than were humanistic, psychodynamic, and existential supervisors, who were perceived more as using the relationship model, playing the therapist role, and focusing on conceptualization. Supervisors were not perceived to differ in their use of growth and skill development models, teacher role, and focus on the supervisee. Women were perceived as more effective supervisors than were men. Perceived effectiveness was predicted by theoretical match and similarity. Supervisee autonomy was predicted by theoretical similarity, low supervisor adherence to theory, and unmatched gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An exploration of experiences and preferences in clinical supervision with play therapists.

Clinical supervision plays a significant role in the counseling profession. Understanding and refining the supervisory process can foster development in the training of therapists in general and play therapists in particular, ultimately resulting in better mental health services for children. This study was designed to explore the experiences and preferences of play therapists in clinical supervision. Participants (N = 559) completed a Web-hosted survey that included items related to their current and preferred supervision experiences as well as a demographic questionnaire. A subset of the respondents (N = 238) completed questions related to their current supervision experiences. Findings suggest that: (a) a substantial number of participants were not receiving supervision for their work in play therapy, (b) supervisees prefer a combination of group and individual supervision, (c) supervisor professional identity as a play therapist and credential are salient supervisee preferences, and (d) compared to current supervision experiences, supervisee preferences had a noteworthy impact on practical significance demonstrated through large, moderate, and small effect sizes. Results from the study offer an opportunity for professionals to consider changes in how supervision is provided to therapists who work with children in play settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of counselor supervision: An examination of Stoltenberg's model from the perspectives of supervisor and supervisee.

We used Stoltenberg's (1981) developmental model of counselor supervision in an examination of relational consequences of supervisors' and supervisees' disagreements about a supervisee's counseling sophistication. We also sought support for Stoltenberg's proposed optimal supervision environments. Eighty-seven supervisors and 77 supervisees from 31 randomly selected university counseling and clinical psychology programs around the United States categorized supervisees as belonging to one of four developmental levels. They also provided demographic information, estimated supervisory behavior frequencies, and made satisfaction and impact ratings. Results indicated that (a) supervisors perceived themselves as varying their behavior with supervisees of different developmental levels in a manner that accorded with Stoltenberg's model, (b) supervisees did not perceive the differences reported in supervisors' behaviors, and (c) supervisees reported significantly less satisfaction and impact when they were in mismatched pairs with supervisors, although supervisors did not. In subsequent analyses, we found that supervisees preferred supervision that was characterized by a collegial relation with a focus on trainee personal development and self-understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Describing and facilitating effective supervision behavior in counseling trainees.

Counseling trainees often do not receive formal assistance in assuming the role of supervisee. What constitutes effective trainee behavior within the context of supervision, as opposed to the clinical context, also has received little empirical attention. A national sample of 176 participants (145 supervisees, 31 supervisors) affiliated with counseling psychology or counseling center internship programs rated the importance of 52 behaviors/characteristics (Supervision Utilization Rating Form; SURF) to the effective use of supervision at specific developmental training levels. Supervisors and supervisees applied ratings from important to extremely important to all items. Statistically significant differences between supervisor and supervisee ratings were noted on 6 items. The development of the SURF and its potential uses in supervisee role induction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of the supervisor and the pregnant analyst.

Presents 3 case examples to illustrate the author's experience as supervisor of 3 pregnant therapists. The supervisor of an analyst in special circumstances may need to function in ways that are out of the ordinary to help the supervisee cope with the added stress set off by a special event. The pregnant therapist may require a supervisor to assist actively in identifying obstacles to self-awareness that can occur due to the heightened stress and psychological vulnerability experienced during this personal life crisis. The supervisor can play an important role in increasing the supervisee's awareness of obstacles in herself that may threaten the analytic process and of commonly occurring patient reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Harmful supervision, a cause for alarm: Comment on Gray et al. (2001) and Nelson and Friedlander (2001).

The research presented by L. A. Gray, N. Ladany, J. A. Walker, and J. R. Ancis (2001) and by M. L. Nelson and M. L. Friedlander (2001) offers an important leap forward in understanding what contributes to problematic clinical supervision. First, to organize and extend this line of inquiry, the author proposes that a distinction be made between bad supervision (ineffective supervision that does not harm or traumatize the supervisee) and harmful supervision (supervision that harms or traumatizes; the supervisee). Second, the author highlights the data from the 2 studies that were found most striking and disquieting (e.g., a sizable portion of the respondents experienced harmful supervision) and discusses the implications of these data. Third, the author offers 5 recommendations for research, practice, and the psychology profession. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations of complementarity and supervisory issues to supervisory working alliance: A comparative analysis of two cases.

This study examined the effects of complementary communications and supervisory issues on the formation of working alliance in 2 graduate student supervisor–supervisee dyads, 1 characterized by high alliance and 1 by low alliance, over the first 3 weeks of clinical supervision. A research-informed case study method was used to collect process and outcome data from the participant and rater perspectives. Results provided some support for (a) a sequential order of the themes or issues underlying the professional development of counselor trainees, (b) a higher degree of complementary interaction in the high-alliance dyad than in the low-alliance dyad, and (c) a relation between complementarity and supervision satisfaction level. Implications for future research and practice are discussed relative to the supervision literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The supervisee experience of group supervision: Implications for research and practice.

Group supervision is commonly employed in graduate psychology training but has received insufficient attention in research. Supervisees' own perceptions and experiences in group supervision can provide valuable information in guiding our understanding and exploration of the benefits and uses of this form of training. This paper reviews 11 empirical studies exploring supervisee perceptions of group supervision experiences. Research, to date, appears to be largely in line with conceptual hypotheses regarding the benefits of group supervision experiences, and implications are discussed with regard to current practice. However, this review also points to the need for more in-depth and advanced research efforts in the area that can further explore supervisee experiences and identify means of optimizing this experience as a component of clinical training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Addressing Religion in Clinical Supervision: A Model.

Despite the increased interest in and acceptance of religion by many psychologists and the American Psychological Association, it still appears that very few supervisees receive the proper training and supervision necessary to competently address religion in therapy. The authors identify supervisor actions that promote supervisee competence in this area by using 8 domains from C. D. Stoltenberg and U. Delworth's (1987) integrative developmental model as a template. A set of conceptual guidelines for developing supervisee competence in regard to working with religious clients and issues is presented along with examples of supervisor or therapist actions for each domain (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervision of psychology trainees in field placements.

Describes some supervision and systems factors that may produce stress for the professional psychology trainee in a part-time field placement outside the training institution. Stress in the supervisor–supervisee relationship can arise from differences between the supervisor and supervisee in theoretical orientation, style of supervision and learning, and perception of the basis of their relationship, as well as from personality differences. Training institutions and service agencies have different goals and roles that can place the supervisor and the supervisee in conflict. The stress can be reduced as the supervisor, who is a field placement agency employee, acts in accordance with training institution goals and as the trainee can act as a junior staff member of the field placement agency. It is suggested that the student who is aware of some of the difficulties that can arise in a supervisor–supervisee relationship and who understands the stresses inherent in the different goals and roles of a field-placement agency and a training institution will be able to avoid some trouble. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)