A study of substitution,using nominal techniques and Fraenkel–Mostowksi sets

Fraenkel–Mostowski (FM) set theory delivers a model of names and alpha-equivalence. This model, now generally called the ‘nominal’ model, delivers inductive datatypes of syntax with alpha-equivalence — rather than inductive datatypes of syntax, quotiented by alpha-equivalence.The treatment of names and alpha-equivalence extends to the entire sets universe. This has proven useful for developing ‘nominal’ theories of reasoning and programming on syntax with alpha-equivalence, because a sets universe includes elements representing functions, predicates, and behaviour.Often, we want names and alpha-equivalence to model capture-avoiding substitution. In this paper we show that FM set theory models capture-avoiding substitution for names in much the same way as it models alpha-equivalence; as an operation valid for the entire sets universe which coincides with the usual (inductively defined) operation on inductive datatypes.In fact, more than one substitution action is possible (they all agree on sets representing syntax). We present two distinct substitution actions, making no judgement as to which one is ‘right’ — we suspect this question has the same status as asking whether classical or intuitionistic logic is ‘right’. We describe the actions in detail, and describe the overall design issues involved in creating any substitution action on a sets universe.Along the way, we think in new ways about the structure of elements of FM set theory. This leads us to some interesting mathematical concepts, including the notions of planes and crucial elements, which we also describe in detail.     

What Is Context <Emphasis Type="Italic">For</Emphasis>? <Emphasis Type="Italic">Syntax in a Non-Abstract World</Emphasis>

An explanation for the uncertain progress of formalist linguistics is sought in an examination of the concept of syntax. The idea of analyzing language formally was made possible by developments in 20th century logic. It has been pointed out by many that the analogy between natural language and a formal system may be imperfect, but the objection made here is that the very concept of syntax, when applied to any non-abstract system of communication, is flawed as it is commonly used. Syntax is properly defined with respect to an individual transformation rule that might be applied to some message. Collections of syntax rules, however, are inevitably due to categories imposed by an observer, and do not correspond to functional features found in non-abstract systems. As such, these categories should not be relied upon as aids to understanding any natural system.     

Syntax-directed correction of syntax errors

The systematic approach to compilation represented by syntax-directed compilers makes possible a similarly systematic approach to the automatic correction of syntax errors. This paper describes the syntax-directed syntax error correction system EXPL. Techniques for pinpointing the locations of syntax errors, generating sets of possible corrections and for choosing the best correction from such a set are presented. A particularly promising approach involves the use of semantic information to assist in the elimination of inappropriate syntactic corrections.     

中文文本自动校对中的语法错误检查

文章将中文文本的语法错误分为搭配错误和与句型成分相关的错误两大类。分别采用模式匹配的方法和基于句型成分分析的进行检查,这两种方法的结合,可以同时考虑局部和全局的语法限制信息,并且降低了语法检查的复杂度。通过对实验结果的分析和评测,证明文章所述的方法是可行的。     

Simulating the Child's Acquisition of the Lexicon and Syntax—Experiences With Babel

This paper describes the theory and implementation ofBabel, a system which explores the hypothesis that much of the differences in the world's languages may be characterized by the inventory and properties of the lexical items and functional categories of those languages. The structure ofBabel assumes that functional categories are originally lacking in a child's syntax, and are acquired through a statistical induction process of lexical acquisition.Babel then uses information induced from the structure of the lexicon to create a model of syntax via a deductive, rule-based process. This model makes a number of predictions about the time course of language acquisition. These predictions are tested by runningBabel as a simulation of child language acquisition, using large samples of adult speech to children as input. The simulation results are shown to highly correlate to longitudinal studies of child language acquisition in English and Polish. Finally, the approach to handling noisy data withBabel is detailed.     

Nominal logic, a first order theory of names and binding

This paper formalises within first-order logic some common practices in computer science to do with representing and reasoning about syntactical structures involving lexically scoped binding constructs. It introduces Nominal Logic, a version of first-order many-sorted logic with equality containing primitives for renaming via name-swapping, for freshness of names, and for name-binding. Its axioms express properties of these constructs satisfied by the FM-sets model of syntax involving binding, which was recently introduced by the author and M.J. Gabbay and makes use of the Fraenkel–Mostowski permutation model of set theory. Nominal Logic serves as a vehicle for making two general points. First, name-swapping has much nicer logical properties than more general, non-bijective forms of renaming while at the same time providing a sufficient foundation for a theory of structural induction/recursion for syntax modulo α-equivalence. Secondly, it is useful for the practice of operational semantics to make explicit the equivariance property of assertions about syntax – namely that their validity is invariant under name-swapping.     

OreintXA:一种有效的XQuery查询代数

XQuery是XML查询语言的推荐标准.现有的XQuery处理策略有两种方法,一种是基于核心语法一次一结点的方法,另一种是基于查询代数的一次一集合的方法.单独使用这两种方法都不能很好地处理XQuery查询.一方面,基于核心语法树的方法效率低,而且很难优化,而现有基于代数的方法又不能很好地满足XQuery的过程化查询语言的特性.描述了一个有效的XQuery代数系统--OrientXA.它是在总结现有的基于代数的XQuery查询工作、分析未解决的问题,并吸收了前述的两种策略的思想的基础上提出来的.它第一次提出了构造模式树的概念,其中的构造操作符能体现XQuery的灵活特征.由于操作符具有很强的表达能力,OrientXA能够表达W3C的用例和XMark测试集的所有查询.     

基于双语约束的蒙古语无监督依存分析

句法分析在自然语言处理的实际应用中扮演着重要的角色。当前各少数民族语言包括蒙古语的句法分析研究还处在相对滞后的阶段。同时给其他相关研究带来了相应的困难。该文提出了一种基于双语约束的蒙语的无监督依存分析方法。能够在无需蒙语依存树库及蒙语句法的情况下,对蒙语进行无监督的依存句法分析。并且获得了较好的效果,在人工标注的测试集上有向及无向的正确率分别达到了67.2%及73.3%,可以实际应用到自然语言处理中了。     

An add-in implementation of the RESAMPLING syntax under Microsoft EXCEL

The RESAMPLING syntax defines a set of powerful commands, which allow the programming of probabilistic statistical models with few, easily memorized statements. This paper presents an implementation of the RESAMPLING syntax using Microsoft EXCEL with Microsoft WINDOWS(R) as a platform. Two examples are given to demonstrate typical applications of RESAMPLING in biomedicine. Details of the implementation with special emphasis on the programming environment are discussed at length. The add-in is available electronically to interested readers upon request. The use of the add-in facilitates numerical statistical analyses of data from within EXCEL in a comfortable way.     

A high-level debugger for PL/I,Fortran and Basic

Dartmouth College has implemented a single debugger for several languages sharing a common runtime environment: PL/I, Basic and Fortran. The debugger is fairly powerful; users set breakpoints and traces which occur whenever the values of given variables change, or whenever certain relational expressions become true, for example. All debugging is carried on in a syntax similar to that of a high-level language. This debugger was implemented in about a month. It should be fairly easy to implement on most timesharing systems. This paper describes the debugger's user interface and gives a rough sketch of its implementation.     

The programming language standards scene, ten years on Paper 13: Prolog

This paper, one of a simultaneously published set, describes the establishment in 1984 of the standards project for the programming language Prolog, and subsequent progress of the project, which at the end of 1993 is almost complete. This brief overview of the forthcoming standard concentrates on issues of general interest: for example, concepts such as unification and a user-defined syntax are being standardized for the first time. Their definitions can and should be re-used in the standard for any other language which includes these concepts.     

基于图的MC/DC 最小测试用例集快速生成算法

依针对MC／DC最4,N试用例集生成效率的问题,依据MC／DC准则,以条件判定组合的复杂逻辑关系为研究对象,采用将原始布尔表达式转化为语法树,再将语法树转化为图,分析图中节点对判定结果的影响的方法,研究了基于图快速生成最小测试用例集的算法．最后结合实倒对该算法进行了验证,并与其他算法进行了比较,结果表明该算法在手动和自动生成最小测试用例集时具有实用性和优越性．     

Ergonomic considerations in the design of interactive languages for process control

The paper introduces the concept of software ergonomics and stresses the importance of respecting the working habits of the user while designing the software aids. Language design criteria are presented under two broad categories: those involving the syntax of the language and those involving its semantics. These criteria are then exemplified using an actual experience of designing an interactive language (TOOL) for a large public utility.     

Flexibility and coordination in event-based,loosely coupled,distributed systems

The scale and diversity of interactions in current wide-area distributed programming environments, specially in Internet-based applications, point to the fact that there is no single solution for coordinating distributed applications. Instead, what is needed is the ability to easily build and combine different coordination abstractions. In this paper, we discuss the role of some language features, such as first-class function values, closures, and coroutines, in allowing different coordination mechanisms to be constructed out of a small set of communication primitives, and to be easily mixed and combined. Using the Lua programming language, we define a basic asynchronous primitive, which allows programming in a direct event-driven style with the syntax of function calls, and, based on this primitive, we build different well-known coordination abstractions for distributed computing.     

融合滑动窗口和哈希函数的代码漏洞检测模型

针对传统漏洞检测分类需要定义人工特征以及相似度匹配算法不能检测非克隆漏洞、现有深度学习漏洞检测的方法特征维度过大以及只针对函数调用的问题,提出一种融合滑动窗口和哈希函数的深度学习方法,对源代码进行静态漏洞检测分类.首先抽取源代码的方法体,形成正负样本集,对样本集中的每个样本构建抽象语法树,根据语法树中的节点类型替换程序员自定义的变量名以及方法名,并以先序遍历的方式序列化抽象语法树;然后对抽象语法树节点中的节点信息进行分词,为每个词分配一个独立的节点编号;其次对树节点进行进一步的拆分,形成词序列,基于滑动窗口与哈希函数训练出相应的漏洞检测分类模型.最后,在SARD数据集中选取CWE190整数上溢和CWE191整数下溢两类漏洞进行实验,该模型在CWE190、CWE191中的分类准确率和召回率分别达到97.4％、94.2％和97.6％、95.1％.实验结果表明,提出方法能够检测到代码中的安全漏洞类型,并且在分类准确率和召回率上优于现有的方法.     

自然语言合理句子的生成系统

基于语法规则的使用Chomsky上下文无关文法产生的句子虽合乎语法规则但并不一定合乎语义常理.文中提出一种可以产生合理的自然语言句子的产生系统{TI,N,BI,CI,S,FI,PI},其中,I是指定的自然语言.该系统建立在语义语言理论上,使用Chomsky短语文法.系统的关键技术是引入了语义单元技术、类型参量,类型参量的作用不仅体现在语义单元中而且还体现在句树、事物树和函数集中.语义单元和类型参量共同作用能有效的对产生的句子进行语义约束使得生成的句子合理.     

基于浅层剖析的CYK改进算法

现代汉语句法与英语句法不同,具有明显复杂性,一是不容易获得完整的规则集,二是整句剖析所得结果含有大量的歧义结构难以消除。使用分治的策略将句法剖析任务分为不同层面的小任务,逐层进行句法剖析是一种可行有效的方法。其基本思想是:首先采用多层马尔可夫模型对句子进行短语组块剖析,将整个句子分割为名词组块、动词组块等短语语块,然后在此基础上运行CYK剖析算法,剖析组块间的依存关系,最终实现对完整语句的句法分析,浅层剖析简化了CYK算法规则集,在一定程度上降低了句法剖析难度。     

Service licensing: conceptualization, formalization, and expression

Service licensing enables a broader usage of services and a means for designing business strategies and relationships. A service license describes the terms and conditions that permit the use of and access to a service, in a machine interpretable way, which services can understand. The distribution of services spanning across organizational boundaries raises problems related to intellectual value that are less explored in service-oriented research. Being a way to manage the rights between service consumers and service providers, licenses become significant in services. As the nature of services differs significantly from traditional software and components, services prevent the direct adoption of software and component licenses. The concept of preserving certain rights of owner and presenting certain rights to consumer, addressed by service licensing, is incipient in the field of service-oriented computing. We propose a formalization of licensing clauses for an unambiguous definition of a service license. We extend the Open Digital Rights Language to implement the clauses of service licensing, in a machine interpretable way. We illustrate the concepts of service licensing based on a case study of service license compliance verification in a real world scenario.     

PREVISE: A knowledge-based system to support the preparation and verification of space operations procedures

This paper presents the Previse system for preparing and verifying operations procedures, developed in the frame of a project conducted by Matra Marconi Space for the European Space Agency ESA/ESTEC. This knowledge-based system supports an evolutive procedures language (syntax and vocabulary). It improves the efficiency of procedures preparation by providing powerful editing facilities, by checking the validity of the syntax used by procedures writers, and by automating the formatting task. It also provides a set of verification mechanisms allowing to detect different types of semantic errors in procedures.