塑料模具钢镦粗过程内部空洞缺陷的有限元模拟

摘要：利用JmatPro软件模拟计算718类塑料模具钢（3Cr2MnNiMo）热物性参数。应用ABAQUS有限元模拟软件建立模具钢镦粗过程中孔洞模型，模拟不同压下率条件下孔洞的闭合规律。模拟结果表明：孔洞闭合分为开始闭合、闭合加速和闭合减速3个阶段；孔洞闭合的2个主要影响因素为孔洞表面等效应变εe、静水压力与等效应力之比σm/σe；随着孔洞所处位置不同，孔洞闭合度不同，根本原因为孔洞所处位置的等效应变不同。所得结果对于塑料模具钢实际锻造生产过程具有指导意义。     

FEM Analysis of Void Closure Behaviour during Open Die Forging of Rectangular Billets

Finite element analysis of open die forging to make rectangular billets has been performed in this study. Three‐dimensional rigid‐plastic finite element method (FEM) was used to analyse the effects of process variables, forging pass design and die configurations on the void closure phenomena. The major objective was to control the internal deformation for better structural homogeneity and centreline consolidation of the rectangular billet. The effect of die width ratio, die feed rate, die shape, and number of passes on the void closure ratio has been examined. Although it is difficult to optimize process parameters in industrial environments, favourable process conditions are recommended to achieve better product quality.     

Numerical Modeling of Microstructure Evolution During Forging of Crank Shafts

Application of numerical simulations to improve forging technology for crank shafts is the objective of this work. Thermal–mechanical finite element model combined with closed form equations describing microstructure evolution is used. Simulations of grain size changes in several locations in the volume of the forging were performed. Results of simulations allow to evaluate microstructure of the final product.     

Computer Aided Design of New Forging Technology for Crank Shafts

Application of numerical simulations to improve forging technology for crank shafts is the objective of this work. Plastometric tests were performed for steels used for manufacturing of crank shafts and a rheological model for these steels was determined. Inverse analysis was applied for the identification of the model parameters. This model was implemented in the finite element software and simulations of various variants of forging were performed. Results of simulations were used to select the best variant, which gives the lowest loses of the material and proper shape of the final product.     

汽车变速器输入轴塑性成形工艺

输入轴是汽车变速器中重要零件,针对其特殊结构提出一火加热和轧锻结合的塑性复合加工工艺,即采用圆柱坯料只进行一次加热,依次采用楔横轧和锻造工艺加工塑性成形输入轴.本文分别设计楔横轧和锻造模具,并进行相关实验.在锻造工艺中轴部圆角采用挤压方案成形,避免其出现折叠缺陷.阶梯轴作为两步工艺的中间产品,其在复合工艺过程中起到承上启下的作用,分别对阶梯轴锥角和轴长进行实验与分析,确定参数的最佳选取范围,并最终通过复合工艺加工成形输入轴.输入轴齿形填充饱满,各部分无缺陷.      

Austenite Grain Size Evolution in Railway Wheel During Multi-Stage Forging Processes

 The knowledge of microstructure evolution of railway wheel during hot forming process is the prerequisite of improving mechanical properties of the final product. In order to investigate the austenite grain size evolution of railway wheel during multi-stage forging process, mathematical models of recrystallization and austenite grain growth were derived firstly by hot compression tests for railway wheel steel CL50D, which then were integrated with a thermal-mechanical finite element model by the developed subroutines. The information about kinetics of recrystallization and grain size distribution during the forging process was obtained by simulation. The predicted results were validated by experiments in an industrial scale, and the average error between the predicted grain sizes and the measured ones is about 5%. The result shows that, under the current railway wheel forging process, the grain size distribution after final forging is inhomogeneous extremely. There is a narrow coarse grain zone between the external part and center of the hub caused by static recrystallization after final forging. With cooling of 60 s after final forging, the grain size is about 85 μm for the areas near the web surface and 175 μm for center areas of the hub and rim.     

Void Closure Behavior in Large Diameter Steel Rodduring H-V Rolling Process

In order to reveal the mechanism and condition of void closure in large diameter steel rod during horizontalvertical(H-V)groove rolling process,a three-dimensional thermomechanically coupled finite element model was established for 9-stand H-V groove rolling process aiming at a150mm steel rod production line.A spherical hole with diameter from 2to 10mm was preset into the center of continuous casting billet with a rectangle cross section of300mm×360mm in this model to simulate the void defect,and then finite element analyses were carried out to observe and quantify the void shape evolution in each pass on the three orthogonal coordinate plane sections.The results showed that the void was formed roughly in the reduction and extension directions,and crushed gradually from spherical shape to an approximate ellipsoid,micro-crack and finally to be closed.A quantitative analysis was carried out by using elliptic radii and closure ratio to describe this evolution process;it indicated that the longest axis of the ellipsoid coincided with the rolling line,and the second and third axes were alternatively horizontal and vertical on the exit cross section according to change of the reduction direction in H-V groove.The void closure behavior during HV rolling was more complicated than that of common horizontal rolling,and the influence of groove type and the extension coefficient on the void closure ratio was presented.Finally,apilot rolling experiment was performed on a 5-stand H-V experimental mill to verify the numerical simulation results,and the experimental results are in good agreement with the numerical simulation results.     

FE–Analysis of Simultaneous Hot/Cold Forging

A new, highly innovative manufacturing method is under development in research and industry, where the workpiece undergoes simultaneously a hot and a cold forging process followed by press hardening directly in the forging dies. Such a high complex forging technology is simulated by means of the finite element method, where the inductive electrical heating is modelled with substitute sources for the heat production besides the forming and the cooling process with thermal deformation and eigenstress evolution. The measured data for the temperature field and the final geometry of the forging test are compared to the results of the simulation, showing a very good agreement.     

Densification behaviour of titanium alloy powder compacts at high temperature

Abstract

Densification behaviours of titanium alloy (Ti–6Al–4V) powder compacts were investigated under uniaxial compression at high temperature. The yield function and a strain hardening law proposed by Kim were implemented into a finite element program (Abaqus) to compare with experimental data of porous titanium alloy powder preforms under PM forging. Experimental data were compared with finite element calculations for the variations of relative density with the applied pressure. Deformed geometry and density distributions of titanium alloy powder compacts under PM forging were also compared with finite element calculations.     

油泵齿轮轴精锻成形工艺研究及缺陷分析

针对油泵齿轮轴特殊形状设计了齿轮轴精锻模具.通过有限元仿真和精锻实验研究了齿轮轴成形过程和金属流动规律.分析了对油泵齿轮轴精锻工艺中产生齿形角隅填充不满缺陷的原因:角隅填充是成形终了时成形载荷陡增的主要原因之一,由于齿轮轴精锻模具结构的特殊性,其强度无法满足齿形角隅填充所需高成形载荷的需要.基于角隅填充状况,提出了齿形端面斜面分流和环形槽分流,并对传统精锻工艺和两种分流锻造工艺进行了有限元仿真.分析结果表明两种分流方法均能有效减小齿形角隅填充时金属流动阻力,保证齿形良好填充,降低成形载荷,并且斜面分流优于环形槽分流.锻造实验验证了有限元仿真的准确性.      

钛合金复杂构件等温锻造工艺研究

针对钛合金复杂构件采用机加工成形成本高,材料利用率低的现状,提出钛合金复杂构件的新工艺,即先等温锻造成复杂构件形状,然后辅以机械加工的方法成形。通过有限元模拟分析和实验研究,提出非对称变截面钛合金复杂构件等温锻造成形工艺为:锻造温度900～950℃,应变速率0.03 mm·s-1,采用玻璃润滑剂,模具材料选用K3合金和空冷的锻后处理。实验结果表明:采用该等温锻造成形工艺获得的钛合金复杂构件完全满足系统的性能要求,并可替代机械加工产品;按新工艺加工成形的钛合金复杂构件,不但降低成本,缩短机加工时间,而且材料利用率也提高到60%以上。     

非调质冷镦钢减定径轧制过程中组织演变的仿真分析

为预测非调质冷镦钢的组织性能,在有限元软件MSC.Marc的基础上进行二次开发,建立了非调质冷镦钢减定径轧制的有限元模型。开发了非调质钢组织演变子程序,研究了非调质钢在减定径机组轧制过程中组织性能的变化规律。研究结果表明:在减定径阶段只发生了静态再结晶,再结晶晶粒大小从表面到中心逐渐增大。     

Modelling of Incremental Bulk and Sheet Metal Forming

In incremental forming operations, forming is accomplished by a number of single, local forming steps with simple, generic tools, and in some cases even by laser or plasma beams. This makes incremental forming processes very flexible. However, complex tool kinematics with a large number of degrees of freedom can cause severe problems for process planning and optimization. In addition, new questions regarding the material behaviour under cyclic plastic deformation arise. This article gives an overview of current problems in the finite element modelling of incremental forming processes, focusing on two examples, hammer forging and incremental CNC sheet metal forming. Based on this, insight is given into current research at the Metal Forming Institute (IBF) regarding adapted simulation methods for incremental forming processes.     

Theoretical and Experimental Damage Prediction in Cold and Semi‐Hot Bulk Forming of Ductile Steels

Bulk forging is among the most important manufacturing methods in metal forming, due to its wide applicability from some ounces to several tons of steel in a high diversity of shapes and forming conditions. Economical constraints demand for further optimisation and cost‐effective production. This requires the application of suitable finite elements simulation software, in order to support the already digitalised construction processes. Ductile damage is one of the most severe problems to arise during the production sequences, not only in cold but also in semi‐hot forging operations. Mathematical approaches exist for the modelling and simulation of ductile fracture in steel. In this paper some widespread used damage models are introduced and discussed. Their damage prediction quality has been verified by experiments, the tensile test and the collar specimen upsetting with several different steels under cold and semi‐hot forging conditions. The methods for the experimental fracture detection are introduced as well. In cold forging the passive ultrasonic testing with integrated statistical filtering algorithms is used. As this method is not applicable to semi‐hot forging experiments, optical fracture detection by means of a high‐speed camera is used instead. A very interesting material behaviour of the steels tested has been identified in the semi‐hot upsetting of collar specimen. For every steel a distinct temperature crossover interval exists, in which the forging process abruptly changes from damaged to undamaged state. This interval amounts to some degrees Celsius only for each of the seven materials investigated. Among the damage models proposed, the Model of Effective Stresses by Lemaitre is chosen for the application to a cold and a semi‐hot forging operation. These industrial processes of an axle end (cold) and a journal bearing (semi‐hot) are susceptible to damage for reasons to be discussed in this paper. It will be shown that the internal fracture of the axle end (chevrons) and the surface fissures of the journal bearing can be predicted with high accuracy. Moreover, the application of the damage model in the finite element software MSC.SuperForm 2004 offers a promising approach for process optimisation. Several possibilities could be tested for their suitability of reducing the calculated damage: geometry variation of the forming tools, process annealing, different materials. The use of damage models in finite element simulation can be regarded as a further step towards an optimal process design.     

From Slab Corner Cracks to Edge‐Defects in Hot Rolled Strip ‐ Experimental and Numerical Investigations

The systematic investigation of the formation of edge defects on hot strips resulting from slab corner cracks generated in continuous casters, affords the development of model‐based concepts for the identification of such initial slab cracks. This enables the reduction of material losses during trimming of defective edges. Utilizing the commercial finite element package Deform‐3D, systematic massive forming simulations of several consecutive flat and edging passes were performed. The main simulation challenges result from the occurrence of different length scale values in the slab and strip models including edge cracks. The numerical results clearly point out the significant morphological changes of the cracks during rolling and afford valuable indications for a deeper understanding of the underlying process details. The results from metal forming simulations coincide very satisfactorily with the unetched cross‐sectional micrographs obtained from an experimental rolling mill. Systematic variation of geometry data enables the identification of the topology of initial slab corner cracks from edge defects detected after hot rolling.     

Multi‐scale Finite Element Cellular Automata Simulation of Multi‐step Cold Forging Operations

The application of new materials to produce forged connecting parts is presented in this work. Particular attention is put on modern bainitic steels due to their increased ductile and strength properties, which influence the behaviour of final products under further exploitation conditions. Bainitic steels do not require a series of thermo‐mechanical operations to obtain these elevated properties, which is one of the advantages of this material. Experimental analysis and numerical simulations of steel behaviour during multi‐step cold forging operations are described in this paper. Since it is one of the possible fracture initiation mechanisms, strain localization development during cold forging is investigated in detail. Conventional constitutive models used in finite element programs have limitations in modeling stochastic and discontinuous phenomena that are responsible for strain localization. The cellular automata model is used as constitutive law in this work to overcome these difficulties and investigate material flow during multi‐stage cold forging operations. Connection of the cellular automata (CA) and finite element (FE) methods creates a so‐called multi‐scale CAFE model. The main aspects of the model are described briefly in this paper. The experimental part of this work supports the numerical investigation. Comparison of the parameters measured and predicted by the CAFE model is presented and discussed as well.     

纯钼的多向锻造数值模拟及实验研究

采用DEFORM–3D有限元模拟软件对纯钼坯体多向锻造大塑性变形过程进行数值模拟,结合锻造实验,研究了变形温度、锻造压下量及锻造工步等对锻件等效应变及其均匀性分布的影响,优选出了反复拔长–镦粗的锻造工艺.研究发现,随着锻造的进行,等效应变分布趋于均匀,在第三次拔长过后,锻件心部等效应变值可达到3.75以上,锻件整体相对...     

TC4合金锥体模锻过程的数值模拟

采用刚塑性有限元法对钛合金锥体的模锻成形进行有限元数值模拟,分析了锥形件模锻过程中的金属流动规律,应力场、应变场、变形区的压力分布,压力的变化规律等。模拟结果表明,锥体模锻成形分为3个阶段:初期变形过程是圆柱体变形为一个小曲率壳体的阶段,应力主要集中在上模的正下方,应变主要发生在此变形区;变形中期是与下模相接触的部分参与变形的体积逐渐增大,直至最后形成所需要的锥体形状;变形后期由于摩擦作用产生严重的不均匀壁厚减薄现象。     

Computer Aided Product Optimization of High‐Pressure Sheet Metal Formed Tailor Rolled Blanks

In view of today's increasing economic pressure the industry has to rationalize in order to remain internationally competitive. Achieving higher product quality using less material and machine‐man‐hours is one possibility to reach this goal. The high‐pressure sheet metal forming of tailor rolled blanks (TRB) allows to produce optimized components specially developed for their future function and which cannot be made from conventionally rolled sheet metal. This paper aims at showing that the two processes, i. e. flexible rolling and high‐pressure sheet metal forming (HPSMF), can be well represented in finite element simulations. By linking the finite element models with a combinatory optimizing tool, it is possible to simulate and optimize the entire process chain. Two example components were used to illustrate the principle of the optimization.