我国建立绿色水电认证制度的探讨

绿色水电认证的目的是把水电工程对生态环境的负面影响降至最低程度,并且为电力消费者提供可信并可接受的生态标志。通过对瑞士和美国绿色水电认证的产生、标准和作用的分析,指出建立认证制度是解决我国水电工程生态环境制约的有效途径,是对现行环境影响评价制度的补充和完善,而且认证已经具有了基本的法律依据和社会基础。为了在我国建立绿色水电认证制度,还需要完善相应的法规和管理机制、政府对认证制度和企业的支持、公正机构的主持和广泛的参与、制定符合中国特点的绿色水电标准。     

瑞士绿色水电评价和认证方法

水电是瑞士最重要的能源。大约60％的瑞士内陆电力来源于水力发电。瑞士是世界上单位面积水电产量最高的国家之一，其次是奥地利，挪威和日本。自60年代初以来，由于水电开发，瑞士许多河流的生态完整性被显著改变了。自然状态或至少是自由流淌的河流系统已几乎荡然无存。由于环境的急剧恶化，社会对天然河流系统的关注升温了，越来越多的人愿意为获取绿色电力而支付额外费用。但是，界定绿色水电并不那么简单。水电有着温室气体排放量低的天然优势，但它对当地水系统干预较大。在实践中，处理好水电对全球和当地环境成本效益的关系至关重要。因此，瑞士联邦环境科学与技术研究院(EAWAG)进行了一项研究工作，通过研究项目设计了一套以生态协调模式进行水电生产的指导原则。根据该评价原则，水电只有在对全球和当地环境造成的影响最小时，才能被认为是绿色能源。在案例研究经验和专家组评议的基础上，该项目于2001年6月发布了绿色水电厂的评价手册和认证程序。该手册提供了一套可以根据当地实际边界条件进行调整的评价程序，包括生态目标、基本标准和背景资料以及评价方法。河流系统的生态完整性可以采用基于环境影响和水电设施管理方面的五因素环境管理矩阵进行分析。最后，该方法还涉及到当地投资集团，他们将决定一套优化的改进措施。所述的案例研究结果的综述，来自河流生态系统、水力学、社会科学和经济学等领域的20个研究项目，这是瑞士绿色水电认证的一套标j隹化的概念框架，为环境和谐水电生产提供了一套标准，包括最小流量调节、水电调峰、水库和泥沙管理以及水电厂设计的基本要求。最后，对首批成功完成的试点项目总所获得的初步市场经验进行了分析。     

绿色小水电政策框架构建的思考

在简析国外绿色水电认证和绿色电力市场的基础上,重点分析了绿色水电认证与水电环境影响评价制度、绿色水电认证的理论基础两个问题,从而引出了实施绿色水电认证的前提条件。提出了建立制度化的绿色小水电认证体系、培育绿色电力消费市场、拓展绿色小水电获得额外收益的渠道、建立激励性的投融资政策等四方面构成的绿色水电政策框架。     

国外水电发展概况及对我国水电发展的启示(七)——瑞士大坝安全管理与绿色水电认证

瑞士的大坝安全管理处于国际先进水平。本文首先介绍了瑞士的大坝安全管理体制和综合的大坝安全管理模式。另外,本文介绍了绿色水电认证在瑞士的发展与应用情况。实践证明,瑞士的综合大坝安全管理模式与绿色水电认证制度,在大坝与水电站工程管理中发挥了非常重要的作用,也取得了非常良好的效果。     

国外水电发展概况及对我国水电发展的启示（七）——瑞士大坝安全管理与绿色水电认证

瑞士的大坝安全管理处于国际先进水平。本文首先介绍了瑞士的大坝安全管理体制和综合的大坝安全管理模式。另外,本文介绍了绿色水电认证在瑞士的发展与应用情况。实践证明,瑞士的综合大坝安全管理模式与绿色水电认证制度,在大坝与水电站工程管理中发挥了非常重要的作用,也取得了非常良好的效果。     

关于在农村水电行业开展"绿色水电认证"的思考

本文分析了"绿色水电"及"绿色水电认证",探讨了在农村水电行业借鉴这样一套完整的体系,结合我国的工作实际,制定和实施绿色水电认证活动,加强农村水电的建设和管理,建设环境友好的中小型水电站的可行性。     

A survey of methods for setting minimum instream flow standards in the Caribbean basin

To evaluate the current status of instream flow practices in streams that drain into the Caribbean Basin, a voluntary survey of practising water resource managers was conducted. Responses were received from 70% of the potential continental countries, 100% of the islands in the Greater Antilles, and 56% of all the Caribbean island nations. Respondents identified ‘effluent discharges’, ‘downstream water quality’ and ‘existing extraction permits’ to be the most common sources of instream flow conflicts. In 75% of the countries, some type of ‘formal procedures’ exist for reviewing permit applications for freshwater extraction. In 82% of the countries, effluent discharge permits state the amount of effluent that can be discharged into a water body while only 69% require that surface water extraction permits explicitly state the quantity of water that can be extracted. In setting instream flow requirements, record low flow is used over 83% of the time. Freshwater fish were identified as the most important aquatic organism but no country ‘always’ considers the ecology or habitat requirements of aquatic species in their instream flow determinations and nearly 70% of the respondents indicated that multivariate, ecological‐based methods are ‘never’ used in their country. Survey responses also indicate there is a notable lack of public involvement during the issuing of water permits. Moreover, over 80% of the countries do not provide public announcements or hearings during the permit process. In summary, this survey indicates that while there is a widespread recognition of the need for instream flows, there is a general lack of regionally based information and public involvement regarding stream flow determination. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于外部性理论的鱼道长效运行管理机制研究

在我国大量兴建的水坝、水库等水利水电工程虽然产生了巨大的防洪发电效益,但也阻碍了鱼类的繁殖、索饵和越冬等生命行为,破坏了洄游性鱼类的生存环境,鱼道运行状况堪忧,提高鱼道管理效率迫在眉睫。本文对我国鱼道建设缺位与管理失效的原因进行了分析,并探讨了将政府作为管理水利水电单位产生的外部性切入点的可能性。研究指出,以政府作为管理切入点对水利水电单位实施有效的奖惩机制,建立绩效评价体系、完善生态环境保护以及绿色电价等相关法律法规是促使其关注鱼类生存、完善过鱼体系的主要手段,促使水电工程产生的负外部性内部化,保护鱼类资源多样性与可持续发展。     

绿色小水电评价的作用、内容及标准分析

绿色小水电评价是从环境、社会、经济和安全四个方面,对处于运行阶段的小水电站进行评价,根据评价结果给予处于行业先进水平的小水电站以经济、政策或技术方面的激励.在分析国际水电环境认证制度、水电可持续性评估规范和我国相关技术标准的基础上,针对我国小水电行业存在的问题,提出通过实施技术评价和激励机制为核心的绿色小水电评价,从而发挥行业引导作用,促进实现小水电保护生态和改善民生的基本目标.本文分析了绿色小水电评价的含义和作用,从环境保护、社会发展、经济效益和安全运行四个方面分析了评价的主要内容,并且探讨了评价基线和标准阈值两个评价标准的关键问题     

Macro‐invertebrate Community Response to Multi‐annual Hydrological Indicators

Flow is widely considered one of the primary drivers of instream ecological response. Increasingly, hydroecological models form the basis of integrated and sustainable approaches to river management, linking flow to ecological response. In doing so, the most ecologically relevant hydrological variables should be selected. Some studies have observed a delayed macro‐invertebrate (ecological) response to these variables (i.e. a cumulative inter‐annual effect, referred to as multi‐annual) in groundwater‐fed rivers. To date, only limited research has been performed investigating this phenomenon. This paper examines the ecological response to multi‐annual flow indicators for a groundwater‐fed river. Relationships between instream ecology and flow were investigated by means of a novel methodological framework developed by integrating statistical data analysis and modelling techniques, such as principal component analysis and multistep regression approaches. Results demonstrated a strong multi‐annual multi‐seasonal effect. Inclusion of additional antecedent flows indicators appears to enhance overall model performance (in some cases, goodness of fit statistics such as the adjusted R‐squared value exceeded 0.6). These results strongly suggest that, in order to understand potential changes to instream ecology arising from changing flow regimes, multi‐annual and multi‐seasonal relationships should be considered in hydroecological modelling. © 2017 The Authors River Research and Applications Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

A comparison of methods for evaluating instream flow needs for recreation along rivers in southern Alberta,Canada

Four methods were compared for determining recreational instream flow needs (R‐IFN) for paddling canoes, kayaks and rafts on ten river reaches in the Oldman River Basin of southern Alberta. Two flow criteria were evaluated: ‘minimal flow’—the low flow that still provides a reasonable quality river trip; and ‘sufficient flow’—the lower end of the favoured flow range. A voluntary, mail‐in user survey from 1983 to 1997 produced 394 responses (4251 paddler days) relative to flow suitability. An expert judgment approach considered flow recommendations from three regional paddling guides that were considered comprehensive and credible. A flow comparison involved about 20 paddle trips per reach by the authors with differing groups, boats and flows. These subjective approaches produced quite consistent results (r² = 0.63) and these were compared to results from an objective, hydraulic modelling method, the ‘depth, discharge method’ (DDM), that applied stage–discharge functions to determine flows that would satisfy depth criteria of 60 and 75 cm. The DDM minimal flows were closely correlated with the means of the subjective methods (r² = 0.73). Thus, all four approaches produced generally consistent results, indicating that all methods were valid. Typical minimal and sufficient flows were about 15 and 30 m³ s^?1, respectively, for the medium‐sized river reaches that had average annual discharges (mean Q) of about 20 m³ s^?1. A close correlation (r² = 0.90) between the minimal flow and mean Q suggests that mean Q can provide an initial estimate for R‐IFN for rivers of this type and size. We recommend that R‐IFN studies commence with the DDM since it is quick, inexpensive and objectively defensible. This would provide guidelines for subsequent subjective assessments that should involve more than one approach to increase the breadth of subjective consideration. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Macroinvertebrate community response to inter‐annual and regional river flow regime dynamics

Spatio‐temporal variability in river flow is a fundamental control on instream habitat structure and riverine ecosystem biodiversity and integrity. However, long‐term riverine ecological time‐series to test hypotheses about hydrology–ecology interactions in a broader temporal context are rare, and studies spanning multiple rivers are often limited in their temporal coverage to less than five years. To address this research gap, a unique spatio‐temporal hydroecological analysis was conducted of long‐term instream ecological responses (1990–2000) to river flow regime variability at 83 sites across England and Wales. The results demonstrate clear hydroecological associations at the national scale (all data). In addition, significant differences in ecological response are recorded between three ‘regions’ identified (RM1–3*) associated with characteristics of the flow regime. The effect of two major supra‐seasonal droughts (1990–1992 and 1996–1997) on inter‐annual (IA) variability of the LIFE scores is evident with both events showing a gradual decline before and recovery of LIFE scores after the low flow period. The instream community response to high magnitude flow regimes (1994 and 1995) is also apparent, although these associations are less striking. The results demonstrate classification of rivers into flow regime regions offers a way to help unravel complex hydroecological associations. The approach adopted herein could easily be adapted for other geographical locations, where datasets are available. Such work is imperative to understand flow regime–ecology interactions in a longer term, wider spatial context and so assess future hydroecological responses to climate change and anthropogenic modification of riverine ecosystems. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Variations in Discharge Volumes for Hydropower Generation in Switzerland

This study analyses the way climatic variations over the last century impacted the volumes of water available for hydropower production in Switzerland. The analysis relied on virtual intakes located all over Switzerland, which were assumed to be fed by water from mesoscale catchments. Intake capacities were designed using flow duration curves. The results show that the overall warming and increased winter precipitation observed in recent decades have led to more balanced discharge behaviours in rivers and more favourable conditions for electricity production than most periods in the past. In lower-altitude regions of Switzerland, the annual volume of water available for electricity production has not changed significantly; however, significantly more water is available in winters, while less is available during summers. In higher-altitude regions like the Swiss Alps, especially in glaciated catchment areas, significantly more water is available in both seasons; in other words, the annual volume of water available for hydropower production is significantly higher in these areas when compared to earlier periods. Comparison of these results with the actual amount of hydroelectricity produced over the same period reveals that hydrological variations cannot fully explain the variations in power production observed. Plant-specific analyses are needed of the impact of climatic changes on water management.     

A new method to determine interstitial flow patterns in flume studies of sub‐aqueous gravel bedforms such as fish nests

Flume studies often seek to measure and record the interstitial flow within plane‐bed sediment bodies and within sediment beds with wavy surfaces, such as those typified by salmonid fish spawning nests and river‐dunes. A simple, inexpensive method is described to record and map, at discrete points, the spatial variation in interstitial flow speeds in experimental fine gravel beds. The procedure uses activated carbon granules to capture a tracer: Rhodamine WT dye. Calibration of the uptake of dye by the carbon for known interstitial flow speeds allows mapping of point flow speed data initially in the nominal x‐dimension. Using interpolation procedures available in a range of commercial ‘mapping’ software packages, the point data can be used to produce quasi two‐dimensional ‘slices’ along sampling planes within the three‐dimensional gravel bed. Similarly, three‐dimensional representations can be produced within which lines of equal current speed (‘isovels’) are interpolated such that the flow vectors (in x, y and z coordinates) may be inferred. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The ‘natural flow paradigm’ and Atlantic salmon—moving from concept to practice

The ‘natural flow paradigm’ is becoming an important first principle in the setting of managed flow regimes throughout the world, including Canada. The principle states that managed flow regimes should consider the natural hydrological variability of a river system, both seasonally and interannually, to maintain its ecological integrity. While laudable, this principle is in direct conflict with hydropower development and irrigation interests. Therefore, both regulatory agencies and developers are struggling to identify the elements of hydrological variability that are critical to maintain the ecological health of rivers. In this paper, we identify flow requirements for different life stages of anadromous Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). We then explore the potential effects of different flow regime scenarios on a wild Atlantic salmon population, using Harry's River in Western Newfoundland as an example. First, we link the life history patterns of Atlantic salmon to the scenario of the natural hydrological variability, incorporating the flow requirements for migration, spawning and rearing. In a second scenario, we present a flow regime managed for optimal hydropower production. Finally, we propose a conceptual model for a hypothetical managed flow regime that provides the necessary hydrological flow variations to support the life history requirements of Atlantic salmon, while permitting flow regulation and modification. This exercise identified data gaps and further research needs. Particularly, more information is needed on the amplitude of spring flooding necessary to initiate downstream migration while minimizing spill, which could potential be used for hydropower production. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

小水电清理整改措施研究

为了坚决纠正中央环境保护监察、长江经济带生态保护审计等发现的小水电违规建设、影响生态等问题,文章通过浙江省开展的小水电清理整改工作实践,对现状水电站进行了综合评估和分类,科学制定了清理整改方案,对退出类和整改类电站编制"一站一策"方案,全面完善了水电站行政许可手续,分类核定了生态流量,逐站实施了生态改造,逐步实施了电站生态流量监测,统一建立了监管平台。通过上述方案的实施,维护和改善了水电站下游河道的生态环境,有效提升了农村水电站的社会效益。     

Instream flow methods: a comparison of approaches

Minimum flows in rivers and streams aim to provide a certain level of protection for the aquatic environment. The level of protection is described by a measure such as a prescribed proportion of historic flows, wetted perimeter or suitable habitat. Conflicting minimum flow assessments from different instream flow methods are arguably the result of different environmental goals and levels of protection. The goals, the way in which levels of protection are specified, and the relationship between levels of protection and the aquatic environment are examined for three major categories of flow assessment methods: historic flow, hydraulic geometry and habitat. Basic conceptual differences are identified. Flow assessments by historic flow and hydraulic methods are related to river size and tend to retain the ‘character’ of a river. Habitat-based methods make no a priori assumptions about the natural state of the river and flow assessments are based primarily on water depth and velocity requirements. Flow and hydraulic methods assume that lower than natural flows will degrade the stream ecosystem, whereas habitat methods accept the possibility that aspects of the natural ecosystem can be enhanced by other than naturally occurring flows. Application of hydraulic and habitat methods suggests that the environmental response to flow is not linear; the relative change in width and habitat with flow is greater for small rivers than for large. Small rivers are more ‘at risk’ than large rivers and require a higher proportion of the average flow to maintain similar levels of environmental protection. Habitat methods are focused on target species or specific instream uses, and are useful where there are clear management objectives and an understanding of ecosystem requirements. Flow and hydraulic methods are useful in cases where there is a poor understanding of the ecosystem or where a high level of protection for an existing ecosystem is required. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Application of the ‘natural flow paradigm’ in a New Zealand context

The natural flow paradigm (NFP) emphasizes the need to partially or fully maintain or restore the range of natural intra‐ and interannual variation of hydrologic regimes to protect native biodiversity and the evolutionary potential of aquatic, riparian and wetland ecosystems. Based on our studies of natural and managed flow regimes in New Zealand, we do not believe that all components of the natural flow regime are necessary to achieve the objectives of the NFP, either partially or fully, because many aquatic species have very flexible niches and life‐history requirements (i.e. there is ‘ecological redundancy’). Obviously, maintaining the natural flow regime will maintain the hydrologic and hydraulic conditions necessary for sustaining natural ecosystems. However, if there is adequate knowledge of what ‘values’ need to be maintained in a waterway, and the aspects of the flow regime that are required to maintain those values are also known, then regimes can be designed that target these requirements and thus optimize conditions for the ‘values’. We believe that an assessment of ecosystem requirements using information on river processes together with habitat requirements and life‐history strategies of biota can achieve the best balance between resource use and sustaining ecosystem function and value, and show examples where changes to natural flow regimes have maintained, or even improved, instream values in some New Zealand rivers. We caution that simple flow‐based rules, such as those that might be developed under the NFP, could be unnecessarily restrictive on multiple use of water in New Zealand while, at the same time, preclude the opportunity for enhancement of key ecosystem values in many waterways. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Responses of obligate versus facultative riparian shrubs following river damming

Riparian or streamside woodlands include obligate riparian trees and shrubs (obligates) that are restricted to streamside zones, and facultative riparian species that are abundant in, but not restricted to the riparian areas. Due to their distinctive life history requirements, it may be predicted that the ecological specialist obligates would be more vulnerable than the facultative generalists to impacts from river damming and flow regulation. We tested this along the Snake River through Hells Canyon, USA, where two native riparian shrubs dominate: the obligate sandbar willow (Salix exigua), and the facultative, netleaf hackberry (Celtis reticulata). We assessed riparian conditions over the past century by comparing ground‐level and aerial photographs taken after 1907 and in the 1950s in advance of three dams, versus recent conditions. These comparisons revealed three changes downstream from the dams: (1) the depletion of surface sands and sandbars and (2) reductions in sandbar willow versus (3) the proliferation of hackberry in dense bands above the typical high‐water line. The willow decline probably resulted from the depletion of sand following sediment trapping by the reservoirs, combined with changes in the seasonal water flow pattern. The increase in hackberry may have resulted from a beneficial ‘irrigation effect’ of daily water releases for power generation during the summer. The opposing responses reflect the plants' differing life histories and may partially resolve impacts of river regulation on alluvial sediments versus the instream flow pattern. We consider other riparian studies that suggest that obligates such as cottonwoods (Populus angustifolia, P. deltoides and P. fremontii) are highly vulnerable to river regulation, while facultative trees and shrubs such as trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides), wolf‐willow (Elaeagnus commutata) and velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina) are more resilient. These results suggest that conservation of riparian woodlands should emphasize the ecological specialist obligates, while facultative species may be less vulnerable to river regulation. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.