The effects of aerobic exercise on psychological and behavioral variables of individuals with developmental disabilities: a critical review

Physical fitness of persons who are developmentally disabled has received relatively little attention in the special education literature when compared to intellectual functioning (e.g., learning, memory, and language) and to acquisition of functional skills (e.g., self-care, community, and vocational). Despite an increased interest in recreational programming stimulated by the concept of functional curricula, teachers may still be reluctant to include physical fitness activities in their students' schedules. Perhaps physical fitness programming for those with developmental disabilities would have wider appeal and application if it were embedded in the broader context of psychological and behavioral change (i.e., engagement in exercise produces generalized changes beyond direct improvement in physical well-being). This article is a review and critique of literature that focuses on the effects of participation in aerobic exercise on three classes of psychological/behavioral variables for persons with mental retardation and associated disabilities. The methodology that characterizes this literature is analyzed, and recommendations for future research are proposed.     

A life skills approach to mathematics instruction: preparing students with learning disabilities for the real-life math demands of adulthood

Current mathematics instruction does not address the day-to-day needs of many students with learning disabilities. Although the vast majority of students with learning disabilities are not college bound, much of mathematics instruction provides college preparation. Too often, classes in mathematics ignore the skills needed in home and community and on the job. The present article examines the ways in which general mathematics instruction, focused on daily living skills, can easily be integrated into the classrooms of students with learning disabilities.     

Mutation of C-terminal tyrosine residues Y497/Y504 of the Src-family member Bsk/Iyk decreases NIH3T3 cell proliferation

Physical fitness, participation in physical activity, fundamental motor skills and body composition are important contributors to the health and the development of a healthy lifestyle among children and youth. The New South Wales Schools Fitness and Physical Activity Survey, 1997, was conducted to fill some of the gaps in our knowledge of these aspects of the lives of young people in New South Wales. The survey was conducted in February and March, 1997 and collected data on a randomly-selected sample of students (n = 5518) in Years 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10. Measures were taken on body composition (height and weight, waist and hip girths, skinfolds), health-related fitness (aerobic capacity, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility), fundamental motor skills (run, vertical jump, catch, overhand throw, forehand strike and kick), self-reported physical activity, time spent in sedentary recreation, and physical education (PE) classes. The methods are described to assist in the development of surveys of other populations and to provoke debate relevant to the development and dissemination of standard approaches to monitoring the fitness, physical activity habits and body composition of Australian children and youth. Finally, we offer comments on some of the strengths and limitations of the methods employed.     

Physical activity play: the nature and function of a neglected aspect of playing

In this review, we consider the nature and possible developmental functions of physical activity play, defined as a playful context combined with a dimension of physical vigor. We distinguish 3 kinds of physical activity play, with consecutive age peaks: rhythmic stereotypies peaking in infancy, exercise play peaking during the preschool years, and rough-and-tumble play peaking in middle childhood. Gender differences (greater prevalence in males) characterize the latter 2 forms. Function is considered in terms of beneficial immediate and deferred consequences in physical, cognitive, and social domains. Whereas most theories assume that children's play has deferred benefits, we suggest that forms of physical activity play serve primarily immediate developmental functions. Rhythmic stereotypies in infancy are hypothesized to improve control of specific motor patterns. Exercise play is hypothesized to function primarily for strength and endurance training; less clear evidence exists for possible benefits for fat reduction and thermoregulation. In addition, there may be cognitive benefits of exercise play that we hypothesize to be largely incidental to its playful or physical nature. Rough-and-tumble play has a distinctive social component; we hypothesize that it serves primarily dominance functions; evidence for benefits to fighting skills or to emotional coding are more equivocal. Further research is indicated, given the potentially important implications for children's education, health, and development.     

Psychosocial maturity in the transition to adulthood for people with and without motor disabilities.

Objective: To identify individual, family, and community variables that contribute to psychosocial maturity in the transition to adulthood for people with and without motor disabilities (mean age = 25 years, range = 20 to 30). Participants/Design: Seventy-four people (34 men, 40 women) with developmental motor disabilities (cerebral palsy or spina bifida) and 72 people (31 men, 41 women) without motor disabilities from a Canadian province completed questionnaires and participated in a semi-structured interview. Results: In a heirarchical regression analysis, individual and family variables explained variance in psychosocial maturity for the total sample. More use of task-focused coping, lower levels of depression, and perceptions of fathers as autonomy fostering were associated with increased psychosocial maturity. These variables were also significant in a similar analysis for the group with motor disabilities with 1 addition; older age also was related to higher psychosocial maturity. Community variables did not explain variation in psychosocial maturity in either analysis. Conclusion: Knowledge about barriers to and facilitators of a successful transition to adulthood can be used to design services to maximize opportunities for young people with disabilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

High-speed digital videoimaging of fast eardrum motions during Valsalva maneuver

OBJECTIVE: To determine health and disabilities of preterm infants at age 10. DESIGN: Prospective follow-up study. SETTING: TNO Preventive en Gezondheid, sector Jeugd. Leiden, the Netherlands. METHOD: A questionnaire on medical consumption and physical disabilities was sent to the parents of a Dutch cohort of infants born alive in 1983 with a gestational age < 32 weeks and (or) a birth weight < 1500 g. The data were compared with outcomes at 5 years of age and with a peer group in mainstream education (data collected in a representative sample from the school health care system). RESULTS: Questionnaires on 75% of the eligible children were returned. Almost 40% of the preterm children had been admitted to hospital after the age of 5. Children in special education were significantly more often treated by a physiotherapist and (or) speech therapist. Overall 45% of the children suffered from a physical disability. This was six times as frequent as in a peer group from the school health survey. Although the assessment of physical disabilities was based on a paediatric examination at age 5 and on a parental questionnaire at age 10, differences were small. CONCLUSION: Mild developmental problems and learning disabilities are frequent in preterm infants. Research of preventive methods and timely interventions are needed and should be incorporated in the facilities for neonatal intensive care.     

Social acceptance and rejection of preschool children with disabilities: A mixed-method analysis.

Eighty children with disabilities enrolled in a nationally distributed set of inclusive preschool programs participated in this study. The average age of the participants was 3.9 years, and 60% were male. The children exhibited a range of disabilities and developmental levels. Using a mixed-method approach, the authors established quantitative criteria for identifying children with disabilities who were socially accepted and socially rejected by their peer group, and qualitative methods revealed themes associated with social participation of each group. Cluster analyses of themes identified 3 clusters associated with social acceptance (e.g., awareness-interest, communication-play, friendship-social skills) and 2 clusters associated with social rejection (e.g., social withdrawal, conflict-aggression). Subsequent cluster analyses of children and matrix analyses illustrated how child social participation was related to superordinate theme clusters and constructs of acceptance and rejection. Socially accepted children tended to have disabilities that were less likely to affect social problem solving and emotional regulation, whereas children who were socially rejected had disabilities that were more likely to affect such skills and developmental capacities. Implications of this research for theory and practice are proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Team-building in vocational rehabilitation: the Horizon Telecentre project

This report concerns an ambitious project which created a functionally independent team of young people with physical disabilities who had no previous experience of employment. The aim of the project was to expand the training opportunities for people with disabilities through the provision of team-building. The team was brought together in order to run a self-financing office bureau business in Athens, providing services to the local community. This project intended to find an innovative alternative to sheltered workshops, which are not found in Greece. A systemic and developmental approach to team-building was explored. The approach consisted of work-hardening, education, experiential learning, and providing the physical structures necessary for self-employment. The paper describes the approach with examples, and includes an evaluation by the trainees. The paper also identifies the importance of including a team-building approach within vocational rehabilitation.     

Palmoplantar psoriasis: diagnosis and therapeutic strategy]

OBJECTIVE: To discuss issues in the education of children with disabilities, particularly with respect to inclusion in mainstream classes. METHODOLOGY: Review of the literature on education for children with disabilities, focusing on the inclusion versus segregation debate. RESULTS: The literature provides no support for segregation and some support for the view that segregated children are disadvantaged. What seems to be important is the way the child is educated rather than where the education takes place. In addition, there are ethical, sociological, and legal arguments in favour of an inclusive educational system. CONCLUSIONS: There are good arguments to encourage inclusive education for children with disabilities. In advising parents, doctors should focus on how rather than where the child with a disability should be educated.     

Mathematics education and students with learning disabilities: introduction to the special series

The prevalence of students with mathematics learning disabilities has triggered an interest among special education researchers and practitioners in developing an understanding of the needs of this group of students, and in identifying effective instructional programming to foster their mathematical performance during the school years and into adulthood. Research into the characteristics of students with mathematics learning disabilities is being approached from different perspectives, including developmental, neurological and neuropsychological, and educational. This diversity helps us develop a broader understanding of students' learning needs and difficulties. Special education assessment practices encompass a variety of approaches, including norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, and nonstandardized procedures, depending on the specific assessment questions professionals seek to answer. Students' mathematical knowledge and conceptual understanding must be examined to determine their strengths and weaknesses, curriculum-based progress, and use of cognitive strategies to arrive at mathematical solutions. Research findings have identified empirically validated interventions for teaching mathematics curricula to students with mathematics learning disabilities. Research studies have been grounded in behavioral theory and cognitive psychology, with an emergent interest in the constructivist approach. Although research studies have focused primarily on computational performance, more work is being conducted in the areas of story-problem solving and technology. These areas as well as other math curricular skills require further study. Additionally, the needs of adults with math LD have spurred educators to examine the elementary and secondary math curricula and determine ways to infuse them with life skills instruction accordingly. As the field of mathematics special education continues to evolve, special educators must remain cognizant of the developments in and influences on the field of mathematics education. Reform efforts have shaped the field significantly since the 1950s, contributing to the curriculum offered in mathematics textbooks and the pedagogical practices taught in higher education courses. Mathematics educators continue to search for a better understanding of how children learn mathematics; this process is shaped by the prevailing theoretical orientations and research methodologies. This special series in mathematics special education provides readers with information about the characteristics of students with mathematics learning disabilities, assessment procedures, mathematics programming, teacher preparation, and future directions for the field. The series originated as a result of discussions with Dr. Lee Wiederholt and Dr. Judith K. Voress, who saw a need for the compilation of recent research and best practices in mathematics special education. I thank them for their support of and thoughtful insights about the development of this series. I also appreciate the support of Dr. George Hynd and his editorial assistant, Kathryn Black, in finalizing the details for publication. Finally, I am most appreciative of the authors' contributions to this series; their work continues to significantly influence the development of the field of mathematics special education and programming for students with mathematics learning disabilities.     

Transitioning to independence: challenges for young people with disabilities and their caregivers

For all teens, the process of moving from childhood to adulthood is challenging. For young people with disabilities, transitioning to independence presents even more challenges. Barriers to successful transition for young people with disabilities include low expectations by parents and other significant people in the community, lack of knowledge of existing career and vocational education services, and lack of self-advocacy skills. This article provides an overview of issues related to transitioning to adult independence and offers suggestions for assessment, planning, and intervention that can help nurses be effective partners with families and other caregivers in transition efforts. Nurses caring for children with disabilities can help families see strengths in their children and develop realistic, developmentally-appropriate expectations for skill development, attitudes, and behaviors that will promote self-sufficiency in adulthood. Nurses can help families think about possibilities for independence and refer families to community resources that can help young people with disabilities pursue postsecondary education, obtain and maintain jobs, and live independently.     

Confirmatory factor analytic investigation of Greenspan's model of personal competence

In the recent revision of the AAMR classification manual, an adapted version of Greenspan's model of personal competence was used to describe personal capabilities. This adapted model differs significantly from the original Greenspan model. In the present study three alternative models of personal competence were evaluated with confirmatory factor analysis methods in separate samples of 180 students with mild and 143 students with moderate to severe disabilities. The results supported Greenspan's original model that includes the domains of physical and emotional competence and practical, social, and conceptual intelligence. The AAMR model that includes the construct of adaptive skills was not supported.     

The role of cognitive appraisal and friendship provisions in adolescents' affect and motivation toward activity in physical education

This study investigated the mediational role of affect in the influence of perceived success, causal attributions, and friendship provisions on choice and future expectancies for success and enjoyment, using a multi-sample structural equation modeling approach. Subjects were 422 seventh- and eighth-grade students participating in physical education classes. Higher levels of perceived success, personally controllable attributions, companionship, and esteem support were found to positively influence levels of affect experienced, which in turn enhanced future expectancies for success and enjoyment in physical education and choices to participate in physical activity outside of school. Furthermore, participation experience outside of school influenced adolescents' perceptions within the physical education setting and their consequent affect and motivation.     

Environmental Toxicants and Developmental Disabilities: A Challenge for Psychologists.

Developmental, learning, and behavioral disabilities are a significant public health problem. Environmental chemicals can interfere with brain development during critical periods, thereby impacting sensory, motor, and cognitive function. Because regulation in the United States is based on limited testing protocols and essentially requires proof of harm rather than proof of lack of harm, some undefined fraction of these disabilities may reflect adverse impacts of this "vast toxicological experiment" (H. L. Needleman, as quoted in B. Weiss & P. J. Landrigan, 2000, p. 373). Yet the hazards of environmental pollutants are inherently preventable. Psychologists can help prevent developmental disabilities by mobilizing and affecting public policy, educating and informing consumers, contributing to interdisciplinary research efforts, and taking action within their own homes and communities to reduce the toxic threat to children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of growth in verbal abilities among children with autism spectrum disorder.

Verbal skills were assessed at approximately ages 2, 3, 5, and 9 years for 206 children with a clinical diagnosis of autism (n = 98), pervasive developmental disorders-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; n = 58), or nonspectrum developmental disabilities (n = 50). Growth curve analyses were used to analyze verbal skills trajectories over time. Nonverbal IQ and joint attention emerged as strong positive predictors of verbal outcome. The gap between the autism and other 2 groups widened with time as the latter improved at a higher rate. However, there was considerable variability within diagnostic groups. Children with autism most at risk for more serious language impairments later in life can be identified with considerable accuracy at a very young age, while improvement can range from minimal to dramatic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disabilities of arithmetic and mathematical reasoning: perspectives from neurology and neuropsychology

Current research on brain-behavior relationships in disabilities of arithmetic and mathematical reasoning is reviewed from both a neurological and a neuropsychological perspective. Although no entirely satisfactory statement of the relationship between arithmetic skills and brain functions has yet emerged, investigators in this area have provided evidence regarding the involvement of some brain systems in processes of calculation. Also, the developmental importance of right- versus left-hemisphere integrity for the mediation of arithmetic learning and performance has been suggested. We propose that an account of brain-behavior relationships in children intended to explain and predict developmental disabilities of arithmetic learning needs to address several important content and processing distinctions in order to (a) encompass empirically derived subtypes of children with learning disabilities who exhibit difficulties with arithmetic and (b) provide adequate direction for future subtyping and intervention research.     

Detection of myocardial ischemia with a computer-assisted 12-lead 24-hour ECG monitoring system (EAGLE) in patients with suspected unstable angina

In order to study the relationship between physical fitness/sport-specific skills and sports injuries 136 physical education students were studied during their 4-years of training in a prospective investigation. Physical fitness was measured every year using a battery of fitness tests, and the performance marks of a number of sports scored at the exams of the academy were used as parameters for the sport-specific skills. Sports injuries were recorded every 3 weeks on standard forms. Relative risk ratios were calculated between the tertile groups good, average and poor for all variables of physical fitness and sport-specific skills. Injury-proneness was defined for all and for acute and chronic injuries separately near the median number of injuries sustained. In only 6 out of 126 computed relative risks was a significant difference found. Discriminant analysis revealed an explanation of 16%, 14% and 11% of the variance for respectively all, acute and chronic injuries, at which 5 or 6 variables in varying combination were included. From our findings it may be concluded that physical fitness and sport-specific skills have little impact on sports injuries for the following two main reasons. Firstly, subjects at risk for sports injuries participate per definition in sports activities and have consequently developed their fitness and skills compared to the sedentary population. Thus, the range in physical fitness or sports skills in the population at risk is relatively small (physical education students belong to the 7th-10th decile in fitness test scores within a general college student population) and therefore an effect is hard to show. Secondly, the total number of sports injuries is very small and moreover, it should be distributed over several categories for analysis. The favourable advantages of using physical education students to study intrinsic risk factors (comparable and varied sports program, excellent compliance) appeared to be insufficient to compensate for drawbacks of selection.     

Developmental origins of perfectionism among African American youth.

The present study used a person-centered latent variable approach to classify types of perfectionism among 6th-grade African American children living in an urban setting. In particular, the authors were interested in determining whether an adaptive subtype could be found and validated against external criteria. The authors also attempted to identify any developmental precursors that could reliably differentiate the perfectionist subtypes. A social learning and competence framework was used to select potential 1st-grade risk and protective factors for future perfectionism profiles. Four classes best described the children's perfectionism scores in 6th grade. Three of these classes resembled the profiles most commonly seen in prior perfectionism research (Non-Critical/Adaptive, Critical/Maladaptive, and Non-Perfectionist). The fourth class, Non-Striving, was characterized by extremely low levels of reported personal standards. Sixth-grade correlates confirmed the distinctiveness of these classes. In particular, the Critical/Maladaptive and Non-Striving classes had higher rates of internalizing symptoms and disorders. Additionally, several 1st-grade predictors suggested unique developmental origins of these classes. The Critical/Maladaptive class was characterized by lower academic skills and elevated teacher-rated attention problems, hyperactivity, shyness, and peer rejection. The Non-Striving class had higher rates of family alcohol problems and lower levels of parent praise. Implications regarding the universal and culture-specific origins and effects of perfectionism are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)