Causal attributions for school-related problems: Teacher perceptions and teacher feedback.

Conducted 2 studies with a total of 54 teachers to examine classroom teachers' attributions for severe school problems. In both studies, teachers who had referred a student for psychological services were asked to assign causality for the referral problem. In Exp II, teacher praise and criticism of referred students were examined as functions of causal attributions. Both studies show that teachers held student factors more responsible for classroom problems than teacher factors and that teachers' attributions varied somewhat for learning vs behavior problems. Exp II indicated that problem students perceived as lacking motivation were criticized more often by their teachers. Relationship of the results to attribution theory and teacher attribution research is discussed, and further research conducted in naturalistic settings is recommended. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive sets, attribution, and social interaction.

Examined relationships among cognitive set variables, attribution, and behavior using 135 female undergraduates. Ss were given either positive-, negative-, or no-set information about the emotional health of a stimulus person prior to observing a videotaped social encounter. After viewing the tape, Ss were administered a free-response attribution measure or a distraction task. All Ss then engaged in actual social interaction with the stimulus person. Results indicate that (a) Ss receiving positive-set information wrote more positively valenced attributions and displayed more positive behavioral responses than did Ss receiving negative- and no-set information. (b) Ss who made attributions exhibited more pronounced behavioral responses as a function of the set manipulation than did those who did not make attributions. It is argued that the latter data reveal the important role of attribution in mediating the effects of set on behavior. Overall data are discussed as reflecting a control motivation in the production of attribution and behavior. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher judgments concerning the acceptability of school-based interventions.

Investigated the influence of behavior problem severity, interventionist, and modality of case presentation on teacher's judgments of school-based interventions. 54 regular and special education teachers attending a university summer course used an intervention scale and the Semantic Differential to rate all possible combinations of 2 interventions (principal or teacher implemented) applied to 2 behavior problems (daydreaming and destruction of others' property). Ss read about or viewed a videotape of a 5th-grade boy engaging in 1 of the 2 problem behaviors. An ANOVA of Ss' ratings of intervention acceptability showed that behavior problem severity and interventionist significantly affected Ss' judgments of intervention acceptability. Findings show that interventions that could be implemented by the teacher were more acceptable. In addition, Ss rated interventions as more acceptable when applied to behavior problems of greater severity. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of a sequential behavior analysis protocol on the teaching practices of undergraduate trainees.

Studied the effects of a sequential behavior feedback procedure on the practice teaching experiences of undergraduate teacher trainees. Teaching performances of 4 Ss were analyzed using Alternative Appropriate Instructional and Organizational Action measures within the ecological context of Instructional and Organizational challenges in the practice teaching setting. Data support the added utility of sequential information when using behavior analysis approaches to teacher training. One field-based undergraduate teaching practicum was monitored. The key elements summarized are (1) classroom instruction tied to the practicum experience, (2) practice teaching experience, and (3) sequential observation system used for evaluation and feedback, including multiple-baseline data to support this approach to teacher training. Results point to the strong relationship between sequential behavior feedback and (1) teacher-trainee improvement in meeting instructional and organizational challenges in the classroom, (2) teacher-trainee movement from an organizational to an instructional focus over the course of the experiment, and (3) positive changes in pupil practices as a function of changes in teacher-trainee instruction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of paradoxical and nonparadoxical interpretations and directives.

Explored the effects of consistent and inconsistent combinations of paradoxical and nonparadoxical interpretations and directives in brief counseling with 49 moderately depressed undergraduates. It was hypothesized that a consistent paradoxical intervention would be more effective than inconsistent interventions, which in turn would be more effective than a consistent nonparadoxical intervention. Ss who wanted to change were randomly assigned to 4 interview intervention conditions and a no-treatment control condition. In the intervention conditions, Ss received 2 interviews with counselors who gave 6 interpretations and 2 directives over the course of the interviews. Ss in the intervention conditions decreased their depression more than did Ss in the control condition. Paradoxical interpretations were associated with more symptom remission than were nonparadoxical interpretations, whereas the nature of the directives students received made little difference. Whether the interventions were consistent or inconsistent made little difference on changes in depression, but Ss had more favorable impressions of their counselors when interpretations and directives were consistent. The impact of the interventions on Ss' attributions of the cause of therapeutic change was also explored. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's involvement in intervention selection: Acceptability of interventions for misbehaving peers.

Examined children's acceptance of a variety of common school-based methods for dealing with misbehaving peers in 2 experiments in which 102 6th-graders served as Ss. Ss were surveyed for their suggestions for treating peers' classroom misbehaviors and their acceptance of different teacher-implemented interventions for modifying 2 behavior problems. The main finding was that Ss differentially rated the acceptability of 12 common interventions. From among 3 categories of interventions, Ss rated private teacher–student interactions, group reinforcement, and negative sanctions for the misbehaving children as most acceptable. Public reprimand and negative group contingencies were rated as unacceptable interventions. Behavior problem severity did not have a significant impact on Ss' ratings of intervention acceptability except for traditional interventions. Methodological, theoretical, and developmental considerations in treatment acceptability are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Actions and occurrences in Kelley's cube.

Examined the effects of 3 factors on the attribution process: (a) Ss made attributions for behaviors that were either completely voluntary (actions) or not completely voluntary (occurrences). (b) The behaviors were either accompanied (experimental condition) or not (control condition) by consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency information. (c) Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency were presented in 1 of 3 orders, with each information variable varied over 2 (high/low) conditions. 252 undergraduates served as Ss. In the control condition only, actions were more often attributed to specific factors, whereas occurrences were more often attributed to a combination of factors. Consensus had more impact on attributions for occurrences than on attributions for actions. A recency effect in the use of consensus was found for attributions of occurrences but not for attributions of actions. Finally, highly consistent actions were more likely to be endogenously attributed. The range of behaviors to which different attribution models may be applied is discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of classroom behavior to the accuracy of the match between material difficulty and student ability.

Examined (a) the level of difficulty of material used for reading instruction with 71 2nd-6th graders and (b) the relationship between the material difficulty/student ability level difference scores and classroom adjustment. Readability formulas determined material difficulty; individual reading tests determined ability levels (the Gray Oral Reading Test, Form B, and the Spache Diagnostic Reading Scales); the Devereux Elementary School Behavior Rating Scale assessed classroom behavior. Ss tended not to receive instruction in material at a level of difficulty equal to their tested ability. Material difficulty/ability level difference scores were significantly related to classroom adjustment: Behavior improved as the material became easier for Ss. Less accurately matched material therefore tended to be related to improved behavior. Unexpected relationships thus exist between classroom behavior and level of difficulty of instructional material. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Premature consensus on consensus? Effects of sample-based versus self-based consensus information.

Evaluated the combined effect of self-based (knowledge of one's own behavior) and sample-based information (knowledge of others' behavior) and investigated R. D. Hansen and J. M. Donoghue's (see record 1979-23605-001) conclusion that population estimates and trait attributions are more affected by self-based than sample-based consensus. 84 paid Ss assigned to a self- or sample-based group responded to a pretested comedy tape or to the tape and 2 target people's opinions (funny/not funny) of the tape. Results show that either self- or sample-based consensus alone affected population estimates and trait attributions. For Ss with self-based consensus, additional congruent sample information enhanced and conflicting sample information attenuated the effects produced by self-based consensus. Thus Hansen and Donoghue's conclusion that one's own behavior is taken as the norm despite the contrary behavior of others is demonstrably premature. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competence of minors to understand, evaluate, and communicate about their psychoeducational problems.

Examined the ability of 43 10–19 yr olds with learning and behavior problems to evaluate and perform in interventions related to their problems under conditions of presumed or explicit consent. Ss performed mathematics problems of varying degrees of difficulty and indicated their affective response to the task, reactions to performance demands, and performance attributions. Despite low academic skills and some deviant behavior, the majority of Ss demonstrated a relatively high level of ability to understand, evaluate, communicate, and perform, as measured by the accuracy of self-estimates of skill, self-explanations of behavior, and on-task functioning. Inaccurate skill estimates and negative reactions to the task were more frequent when consent was presumed rather than explicitly sought. Data suggest that many minors have the competence necessary for effectively participating in treatment decision making. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The context of failure in the primary grades: Risk factors in low and high referral rate classrooms.

Explored student and classroom factors that place children at risk for referral to special education. One teacher-nominated at-risk student and one teacher-nominated not-at-risk student were observed in each of 24 regular education classrooms divided into high, medium, and low referral rate groups. The 48 Ss (aged 7 yrs 2 mo to 11 yrs 5 mo) were observed in the areas of instruction, behavior, and type of behavior management received in reading and in one other large group instructional setting. Significant differences were found between the not-at-risk and at-risk Ss on academic engaged time, inappropriate behaviors, and some behavior management strategies used by their teachers. Frequency with which different types of behavior management were used differentiated high and low referral rate classrooms. Both individual differences and classroom resources seem to play a role in determining referral to special education. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Company motivates the miserable": The impact of consensus information on help seeking for psychological problems.

Based on an attribution theory analysis, it was predicted that normal Ss (those who do not evidence a particular target problem) would be least motivated to seek help for a psychological problem when they believe that the problem is actuarially common (i.e., high consensus). Based on an analysis of how target problem people evaluate their psychological problem, however, it was predicted that such Ss (unlike normals) should be maximally motivated to seek help when they believe that the problem is common. To test these predictions, target problem and normal Ss (72 high vs average test anxious female undergraduates, as assessed by the Test Anxiety Inventory) were given feedback that they possessed a problem (test anxiety). Ss were then told that their problem was either common, uncommon, or given no consensus information. As predicted, the higher consensus information led to the least help-seeking behavior for the normal Ss and to the most help-seeking behavior for the target problem Ss. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adaptive design strategies for selecting number and presentation order of examples in coordinate concept acquisition.

A study using 132 10th–11th graders investigated 2 variables of computer-based adaptive instructional strategies for concept learning. The 1st variable tested the hypothesis that the selection of the number of examples according to on-task information is more efficient than the selection according to pretask information or pretask plus on-task information. Data analysis showed that the on-task information condition needed significantly less instructional time and fewer instructional examples than either of the other 2 conditions. The 2nd variable contrasted a response-sensitive strategy with a response-insensitive strategy to determine the presentation order of examples within rational sets. Results show that Ss in the response-sensitive group not only performed better but also needed less on-task learning time and fewer examples than the response-insensitive group. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfer effects of success and failure training from one reinforcing agent to another.

Determined the transfer effects of behavior changes in the presence of 1 reinforcing agent (Experimenter A) on behavior in the presence of another agent (Experimenter B). Ss were 36 boys 6-10 yrs old in grades 1-3, judged to have poor attention span and low achievement in arithmetic. The experimental task consisted of a series of counting problems. Each session included 2 12-min subsessions during which S could earn token reinforcement only by attending to the task and solving problems. Experimenter A conducted 1 subsession and Experimenter B conducted the other. An O recorded inappropriate classroom behavior (talking and out-of-seat behavior). Following the establishment of stable, intermediate baseline levels of counting, Experimenter A introduced a more favorable reinforcement schedule (success training) for some Ss and a less favorable schedule (failure training) for some Ss, but continued baseline schedules for Ss in the control condition. Experimenter B continued baseline schedules for all Ss. The effects of success training produced generalization of greater counting behavior while the effects of failure training produced no transfer of less counting behavior and generalization of greater inappropriate classroom behavior. There was no evidence for behavior contrast. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The use of functional analysis to develop peer interventions for disruptive classroom behavior.

Evaluated the effectiveness of a peer intervention for disruptive behavior that was based on the results of a prior classroom based functional analysis. Four 7–9 yr old males who exhibited disruptive classroom behavior participated in the study. Results of a functional analysis suggest that peer attention rather than teacher attention or escape/timeout is associated with the most disruptive classroom behavior. An intervention based on peer attention for appropriate behavior, and extinction of peer attention for disruptive behaviors, reduced disruptive behaviors to zero for all 4 Ss. The successful fading of peer reinforcement is demonstrated, and previous classroom based functional analyses of the differential effects of teacher attention, peer attention, and timeout/escape for verbal children of average intellectual functioning was replicated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributional biases among clinicians: A comparison of psychoanalysts and behavior therapists.

Assessed the attributional style of 30 psychoanalysts, 32 behavior therapists, and 78 nontherapist undergraduates by using a mail survey. Ss listed causal explanations for 3 hypothetical problems experienced by either themselves, their friends, or their clients. Results indicate that (a) psychoanalysts gave more dispositional explanations than situational explanations, whereas the reverse was true for behavior therapists and nontherapists; (b) psychoanalysts gave psychological explanations for problems hypothetically experienced by their friends or clients, but then gave physical explanations for the same problems hypothetically experienced by themselves; and (c) psychoanalysts holding medical degrees gave fewer psychological attributions and more physical attributions than behavior therapists or psychoanalysts with doctorate degrees. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing instructional texts and examples.

72 undergraduates used 1 of 4 formats of instructional information to solve series completion problems, and processing of instructional information and test performance were assessed. Direct retrieval of a procedure with an instructional text was most successful when the name of the procedure was provided, rather than the component steps. Analogical processing was used when an example was given. When inferring a rule and mapping the example rule on to the test items, Ss looked back at the example more often than at the instructional text. Practice effects were most evident for Ss given an example, suggesting that the example but not the instruction procedure was being modified in the course of the test. An appendix of problems used on the computer test is included. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A self-presentation approach to the fundamental attribution error: The norm of internality.

Three studies assessed the validity of the assumption of a general norm placing greater value on internal explanations for behavior than on external explanations (determined by Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale). Study 1 with 117 undergraduates demonstrated that Ss who expressed internal causal attributions received more social approval than those who expressed external ones. Study 2, in which 18 Ss rated themselves as giving more internal explanations for events than average others do, also demonstrated the greater positive value associated with internal attributions. In Study 3, 25 Ss given the injunction to create a positive impression described themselves as having a stronger bias toward internal attributions than did 24 Ss given the injunction to create a negative impression. The implications of the norm for internality are discussed and outlined for the actor–observer effect and for social psychological theories. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)