Human figure drawings: Abusing the abused.

Comments on R. W. Motta et al's (see record 1994-04005-001) paper on the validity of psychological tests that rely on human figure drawings (HFDs). While Motta et al are correct in stating that the use of such drawings is often abused, they appear to be unaware of recent approaches to the interpretation of HFDs. Motta et al fail to recognize, or ignore, the variety of methods and scoring procedures available for the evaluation of HFDs. Their review of a validity study by J. A. Naglieri et al (1991) regarding the Draw A Person: Screening Procedure for Emotional Disturbance is also criticized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empirical evaluations of human figure drawings.

"Machover's hypotheses concerning the DAP have seldom been supported by the research reported in the literature in the past eight years. It is suggested that the opinion of clinicians that the DAP is of value as a clinical instrument, despite the lack of experimental evidence to support this judgment, is due to the fact that the DAP, in a few cases which impress the individual clinician, does provide an indication of the nature of the individual client's problems. Some evidence supports the use of the DAP as a rough screening device and as a gross indicator of level of adjustment." 87-item bibliography. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic and socioeconomic status differences in human figure drawings.

Evaluated the human figures drawn by 216 psychiatric patients for differences associated with ethnic group, socioeconomic status, and sex. It was hypothesized that differences in performance, particularly differences reflecting a lower level of cognitive maturity, would be associated with the sociocultural background variables, and that these differences might well be such as to be misinterpreted as psychopathologically deviant behavior. Results generally support the hypothesis. Socioeconomic background differences were of greater importance than ethnic group membership in determining differences in cognitive maturity. Drawing size and placement were associated with ethnic group status, and drawing intergration was related to ethnic and social class background, as well as to sex. (23 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological correlates of overall quality of figure drawings.

The aim of this study was to identify psychological correlates of overall quality (OAQ) of figure drawings. The drawings of 75 female and 62 male psychiatric patients were rated for OAQ on a 9-point scale. Psychological test data, interview and behavioral ratings, and information regarding social background and adjustment were also available for many of the Ss. Results were as follows: (1) OAQ was not related to specific aspects of psychopathology, improvement in clinical condition, nor to a wide variety of personality trait ratings. (2) Low, but statistically significant, relationships were found between OAQ and 3 independently obtained indexes of adjustment in specific situations. (3) OAQ was related positively with vocabulary intelligence and father's occupational level and negatively with age. (36 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Size of figure drawings of psychotically depressed patients.

The size of human figure drawings of a psychotically depressed group was compared with those of nondepressed controls. The effects of mood change on the drawings of the depressed group following treatment were also examined. Results fail to support a relationship between depression and size of drawing. Changes in mood in patients who improve after treatment for depression are not reflected in subsequent figure drawings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The use and abuse of human figure drawings.

Reviews data-based studies on human figure drawings and concludes that there is little support for their validity or for their use as devices to assess personality, behavior, emotion, or intellectual functioning. Ease of administration and anecdotal reports of predictive accuracy are presented as explanations for their continued usage. Existing valid measures of behavioral and cognitive functioning render the use of human figure drawings superfluous. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity of clinical judgments based on human figure drawings.

The literature establishes that clinicians have routinely been making diagnostic judgments based on techniques of equivocal validity. In a study considering clinical and experimental specifications for a suitable methodology, it was found that Draw-a-Person experts are capable of identifying mental defectives far beyond chance expectations. 4 remaining matched groups (schizophrenics, neurotics, homosexuals, and normals), however, were found not to be identifiable, even after the experts were permitted a 2nd chance to make a correct diagnosis. The expertness of the judges, as predicted from the ranks they were accorded by their peers, was unrelated to their actual performance. (31 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of self-esteem on drawings of the human figure.

In a test of hypotheses relating self-esteem to figure drawing test performance, 2 groups of male college undergraduates were given falsified personality test results designed to raise or lower their level of self-esteem and were then given a figure-drawing test. A control group took the test without first receiving any information about themselves. The overall pattern of results suggests that lowering of self-esteem is a more powerful manipulation than raising it since Ivy League undergraduates would normally be expected to have relatively high self-esteem. Moreover, the absence of differences between the HSE and Control groups suggests greater validity for the hypotheses regarding low self-esteem than for those regarding high self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between height of figure drawings and depression in psychiatric patients.

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that the height of figure drawings is negatively related to feelings of depression. The drawings of 50 depressed patients were found to be significantly shorter (p     

An evaluation of criteria used by clinicians to infer pathology from figure drawings.

6 psychologists and 8 nonpsychologists were given a mixture of figure drawings made by 30 normal and 30 psychiatric adolescents and instructed to infer which drawings were by patients and to state the criteria used. All criteria were cross-validated on a new sample (N = 86). Valid criteria of pathology were "bizarre," "distorted," "incomplete," and "transparent." Valid criteria of normality were: "happy expression" and "nothing pathological." Many criteria used by clinicians led to inaccurate inferences. Nonpsychologists discriminated as well as psychologists (65% and 64% accuracy, respectively). An empirically based prediction formula discriminated with 79% accuracy on cross-validation. It is concluded that elimination of invalid criteria can lead to a sharpening of clinical judgment and more accuracy in evaluation of figure drawings. (59 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comment on "The use and abuse of human figure drawings."

Comments on R. W. Motta et al's (see record 1994-04005-001) conclusion that the use of human figure drawings to assess intelligence is invalid. While Motta et al are generally successful in documenting the shortcomings of these tests, their literature review is not exhaustive. However, the arguments of Motta et al should be heeded because they are based on empirical data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual-cognitive and personality development of Mexican and Anglo-American children as measured by human figure drawings.

Presents longitudinal and cross-sectional human figure drawing data for 394 8.7-17.7 yr old Mexican and American school children. The factors of sex, age, socioeconomic status, culture, and year of repeated testing were investigated in factorial complex analyses of variance for Goodenough-Harris scores in the 1st and 2nd figures drawn and for masculinity-femininity ratings on both sex figures drawn. Percentages of Ss drawing self-sex figures 1st are presented. The importance of cultural variables as determinants of the behaviors involved in performance on these measures was evident from the significant main effects and complex interactions obtained. Cultural differences in rearing practices linked with sex of S were reflected in the poorer degree of sexual differentiation in the drawings of American, as compared with Mexican, Ss. Important methodological and interpretative issues in cross-cultural research and clinical application are discussed (e.g., those involved in employing uniculturally developed instruments with culturally different populations). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of Israeli children's images of Jews and Arabs and their expression in human figure drawings.

The development of images of a Jew and an Arab in Jewish Israeli children who were 4–15 years of age was investigated by means of human figure drawings followed by the administration of questionnaires. The drawings were scored on structural and thematic variables. The questionnaires assessed beliefs and intentions. The hypotheses predicted a differential perception of in- and out-groups and peaks in negativity toward the out-group at preschool age and in early adolescence. Results indicate that, irrespective of age, Jewish Israeli children have generalized images of the two ethnic groups. Preschoolers expressed both positive biases toward the in-group and negativism toward the out-group, and early adolescents manifested mainly negative biases toward the out-group. Children in middle childhood and mid-adolescents manifested reductions in both in-group favoritism and out-group negativity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An unjustified, sweeping indictment by Motta et al. of human figure drawings for assessing psychological functioning.

Comments on R. W. Motta et al's (see record 1994-04005-001) conclusion that the use of human figure drawings (HFDs) in psychological testing is invalid. Motta et al completely ignore strong positive evidence that narrowly prescribed uses of HFD are valid for assessing certain aspects of personality and intellectual functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of size modification of human figure drawings in spatial axes systems of varying complexity

In the present study, intraindividual development of the ability to modify the size of the human figure drawing was investigated. In a longitudinal data set with repeated measurement at ages 7, 9, and 12 it was shown that size was reduced between 7 and 9 years. Three factors were found to be responsible for size variation of the human figure drawing: The larger the figure initially, the more complex the level of the spatial axes system and the more persons in the picture, the greater size reduction.     

The utility of human figure drawings in personality and intellectual assessment: Why ask why?

Agrees with R. W. Motta et al's (see record 1994-04005-001) conclusion that there is little evidence that human figure drawings (HFDs) have any predictive validity or definitive clinical use in personality and intellectual assessment. Use of the HFD as a personality assessment tool is reviewed in the empirical literature. It is concluded that the only defensible ways that HFDs can be used involve hypothesis generating and testing under behavioral or cognitive-behavioral perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial placement of human figure drawings as an indicator of cognitive and personality characteristics among normal young adolescents.

Data from 13.7-yr-old Ss administered Sarason's Test Anxiety Scale for Children show that (a) contrary to common clinical interpretations, no relationship was found between test anxiety scores and spatial placement of human figure drawings; (b) Ss who used the upper left-hand space had lower levels of conceptual maturity, cognition inhibition ability, and accuracy in time estimates; and (c) placement of figures on the right-half or center of the sheet was related to higher levels of conceptual maturity and ability to delay time estimates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"What's wrong in this picture?": Response to Motta et al.'s review of human figure drawings.

Comments on R. W. Motta et al's (see record 1994-04005-001) conclusion that human figure drawings have little use in describing personality and predicting behavior and intellectual functioning. This conclusion is supported, and it is suggested that the continued use of human figure drawings by school psychologists is due to illusory correlation, false belief in incremental validity, and impossibility of disconfirmation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Human memory: An adaptive perspective.

It was argued that the basic principles of operation of human memory can be understood as an optimization to the information-retrieval task that human memory faces. Basically, memory is using the statistics derived from past experience to predict what memories are currently relevant. It was shown that the effects of frequency, recency, and spacing of practice can be predicted from the statistical properties of information use. The effects of memory prompts, cues, and primes can be predicted on the assumption that memory is estimating which knowledge will be needed from past statistics about interitem associations. This analysis was extended to account for fan effects. Memory strategies were analyzed as external to the process of statistical optimization. Memory strategies are attempts to manipulate the statistics of information presentation to influence the optimal solution derived from memory. The classic buffer-rehearsal model for free recall is analyzed as a strategy to manipulate the statistics of information presentation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supportive or suggestive: Do human figure drawings help 5- to 7-year-old children to report touch?

The authors examined the accuracy of information elicited from seventy-nine 5- to 7-year-old children about a staged event that included physical contact-touching. Four to six weeks later, children's recall for the event was assessed using an interview protocol analogous to those used in forensic investigations with children. Following the verbal interview, children were asked about touch when provided with human figure drawings (drawings only), following practice using the human figure drawings (drawings with instruction), or without drawings (verbal questions only). In this touch-inquiry phase of the interview, most children provided new information. Children in the drawings conditions reported more incorrect information than those in the verbal questions condition. Forensically relevant errors were infrequent and were rarely elaborated on. Although asking children to talk about innocuous touch may lead them to report unreliable information, especially when human figure drawings are used as aids, errors are reduced when open-ended prompts are used to elicit further information about reported touches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)