Envelopes with microplastics generated from recycled plastic bags for crude oil sorption

Oil spill accidents in marine environments and the lack of disposal of post-consumer plastic are environmental problems worldwide. This study presents a sustainable alternative for both issues through envelopes filled with microplastics (MPs) from recycled bags for the sorption of spilled crude oil. Through particle size analysis by three different sieves (4, 9, and 20 mesh), different MP sizes were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), density, contact angle (CA), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). According to their sizes, the MPs were distributed in envelopes and submitted to crude oil sorption capacity and efficiency evaluation. Three MP particle sizes were obtained (from the largest to the smallest, according to the sieve mesh, MP4, MP9, and MP20). SEM images of samples exhibited irregular and porous surfaces, and MP4 had the smallest pore size (8.6 μm). BET showed that MP4 had the highest surface area (0.074 m²/g). The CA > 90° exposed that all samples were hydrophobic. FTIR spectrum demonstrated that the samples from the recycled bags were made of high density polyethylene (HDPE). The MP4 envelopes also had the best crude oil sorption results in capacity and efficiency (1.73 g/g and 68%, respectively), being a promising recycled sorbent in crude oil spillage applications.     

Time and volume-ratio effect on reusable polybenzoxazole nanofiber oil sorption capacity investigated via machine learning

Diesel oil sorption capacities (DOSCs) of polybenzoxazole/polyvinylidene fluoride nanofiber mats with four different groups (-O-, -S-S-, phenylene and diphenylene) in the main chain structures were investigated. Different experimental duration and diesel-oil/tap-water volume ratio pairs were used for diesel oil sorption. No degradation was observed in the nanofiber mat structures after diesel oil sorption. The characterizations of polybenzoxazole (PBO) nanofibers with high diesel oil selectivity were performed by scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, thermal gravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), and contact angle measurement analysis. According to the result of characterizations, superoleophilic and superhydrophobic nanofiber mats show high water contact angle value in the range of 132–140^∘ and show high separation efficiency. In this study, we integrated ensemble gradient boosting model (XGBoost) to predict the DOSC of sorbent nanofiber and obtain an optimal set of conditions to maximize the DOSC. The predicted PBO-E sorbent at the 0.5 ratio of diesel-oil/tap-water measured at the end of the 3rd minute showed the most reliable and stable diesel oil sorption with at least 9.39 and at most 12.33 g/g sorbent with 95% of confidence.     

Hydrophobic surface modification of FMSS and its application as effective sorbents for oil spill clean‐ups and recovery

Superhydrophobic sponge‐like materials are attracting more attention in recent years as potential sorbent materials for oil spill clean‐up. In this work, the authors report the incorporation of hydrophobic structural features into a superhydrophilic pristine formaldehyde‐melamine‐sodium bisulfite copolymer sponge (FMSS) by N‐acylation with a fatty acid derivative, for use as an oil sorbent in oil spill clean‐ups. This resulted in our ability to transform the surface properties of the sponge skeleton to superhydrophobic with a contact angle of 143°. The acylated FMSS (a‐FMSS) was shown to retain the interconnected porous structure, and was characterized with microscopic and spectroscopic analyses. Sorption experiments with engine oil and chloroform showed that a‐FMSS had a very high oil sorption capacity (amounting to 99 and 168.2 times its own weight respectively) than commercial nonwoven polypropylene sorbent. In this view, a‐FMSS is considered to be a promising oil sorbent for potential applications in large‐scale oil spill clean‐ups. © 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 63: 4090–4102, 2017     

Preparation and characterization of PES/CA microporous membranes via reverse thermally induced phase separation process

The blend polyethersulfone (PES)/cellulose acetate (CA) flat‐sheet microporous membranes were prepared by reverse thermally induced phase separation (RTIPS) process. The effects of CA content and coagulation bath temperature on membrane structures and properties were investigated in terms of membrane morphology, water contact angle, permeation performance, and mechanical properties. The cloud point results indicated that the cloud point decreased with the increasing content of CA. When the coagulation bath temperature was lower than the cloud point, the membrane formation process underwent nonsolvent induced phase separation (NIPS) process and dense skin layer and finger‐like structure were formed in membranes. These membranes had lower pure water flux and poor mechanical properties. But when the coagulation bath temperature was higher than the cloud point, the membrane formation process underwent RTIPS process. The porous top surface as well as porous cross‐section of the membranes were formed. Therefore, high pure water flux and good mechanical properties were obtained. The contact angles results indicated that the hydrophilicity of the prepared membranes improved obviously with the addition of CA. When the content of CA was 0.5 wt% and the membrane formation temperature was 323K, the PES/CA microporous membrane which was prepared via the RTIPS process displayed a optimal permeability of the pure water flux of 816 L m^?2 h^?1 and the BSA rejection rate of 49.5%, which showed an increase of 48.9% and 23.6% than that of pure PES membrane, respectively. Moreover, the mechanical strengths of the membranes obtained by RTIPS process were better than those membranes prepared by NIPS process. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 58:180–191, 2018. © 2017 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Electrospun nanofibrous polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene membranes for oil–water separation

Effective separation of oil from water is of significant importance globally for various applications such as wastewater treatment, oil spill cleanup, and oil purification. Among the numerous approaches for oil removal, membrane separation is considered one of the most promising approaches due to its selectivity and ease of operation. Electrospinning is a promising technique for producing polymeric membranes with tunable structures with interconnected pores, large surface area, and high porosity. In this study, hydrophobic poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) nanofibrous membranes were electrospun and used for this purpose. The effects of various parameters (e.g., polymer concentration, applied voltage, tip to collector distance, and feed rate) were investigated to find the optimum electrospinning conditions. Further, the electrospun membranes were characterized according to average fiber diameter, morphology, average pore size, and wettability to identify the combinations most likely to succeed in oil–water filtration. The physical–chemical properties of the membranes (i.e., thickness, areal density, porosity, average pore size, water/oil contact angle, hydrostatic pressure head, and oil filtration flux) were studied based on standard test methods. The separation efficiency of eight electrospun membranes with various pore sizes and average fiber diameters were tested for diesel/water mixtures. A linear relation was found between the initial oil flux and the average pore size of the membranes. The maximum oil filtration flux of about 224 L/m²/h, achieving over 75% oil recovery in 10 min, was obtained for the electrospun membrane with the average pore size of 4.5 μm. The membranes were successfully used for eight consecutive oil–water separation cycles without noticeable loss of flux.     

Preparation of polypropylene microfiltration membranes via thermally induced (solid–liquid or liquid–liquid) phase separation method

Polypropylene (PP) hollow fiber microfiltration membranes with excellent performance were successfully prepared from the PP‐binary diluent system via thermally induced liquid–liquid (L–L) phase separation method. The binary diluent consisted of myristic acid and diphenyl carbonate. The effects of the binary diluent on phase separation and membrane structure were systematically investigated. With the decrease in the weight ratio of myristic acid to diphenyl carbonate, the Flory–Huggins interaction parameter between PP and the binary diluent became more positive, and the mechanism of phase separation changed from solid–liquid (S–L) to L–L. This resulted in the membrane structure changing from spherulitic to bicontinuous. Moreover, as the weight ratio of myristic acid to diphenyl carbonate decreased from 11/9 to 2/3, the L–L phase separation region kept enlarging while the viscosity of the whole system became higher. The pore size of the cross‐section increased due to the longer coarsening time while the surface pore size decreased due to the higher viscosity of the system. The bulk porosity of resultant PP membranes was mostly higher than 70% and pure water flux were generally larger than 650 L m^?2 h^?1. In addition, the PP hollow fiber microfiltration membrane possessed excellent mechanical properties (tensile strength of 3.47 MPa and elongation of 118%) and good separation performance (rejection to PEO (M_w = 1000 kDa) of 94.6%) when the weight ratio of myristic acid to diphenyl carbonate was 2/3. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 42490.     

Preparation of PVDF/CaCO3 hybrid hollow fiber membranes for direct contact membrane distillation through TIPS method

Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)–CaCO₃ hybrid hollow fiber membranes with a cellular structure and prominent permeability were fabricated via the thermally induced phase separation method for membrane distillation. CaCO₃ nanoparticles were introduced to the casting solution to improve the properties of the membranes. The effect of CaCO₃ dosage on the morphology was investigated. The prepared membranes were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, SEM, and atomic force microscopy. The results showed that liquid–liquid phase separation preceded solid–liquid phase separation during the spinning process. Low dosages of CaCO₃ had a strong influence on the crystallization of PVDF molecules. The contact angle of the membrane increased with the addition of CaCO₃ nanoparticles. The maximum dead end pure water flux was as high as 1295.5 L/(m² h). The direct‐contact membrane distillation flux of the optimized PVDF/CaCO₃ hybrid membrane achieved 63.98 kg/(m² h) at the feed temperature of 90 °C. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43372.     

Optimization of structure and properties of polyphenylene sulfide porous membrane by controlling the process of thermally induced phase separation

Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) porous membranes were successfully prepared from miscible blends of PPS and polyethersulfone (PES) via thermally induced phase separation followed by subsequent extraction of the PES diluent. The morphologies, crystalline structures, mechanical properties, pore structures and permeate fluxes of the PPS porous membranes obtained from different phase separation processes were characterized and are discussed. During the phase separation in the heating process, PPS and PES mainly underwent liquid–liquid phase separation, and then a nonhomogeneous porous structure with a mean pore size of 100 μm and a honeycomb‐like internal structure formed on the membrane surface. The phase separation of PPS/PES occurring in the cooling process was easier to control and the related pore diameter distribution was more regular. In the process of direct annealing, as the phase separation temperature decreased, the pore size distribution became more homogeneous and the mean diameter of the pores also decreased gradually. When the phase separation temperature decreased to 200 °C, PPS membranes with a network structure and a uniform as well as well‐interconnected porous structure could be obtained. In addition, the maximum permeation flux reached 1718.03 L m^–2 h^–1 when the phase separation temperature was 230 °C. The most probable pore diameter was 6.665 nm, and the permeate flux of this membrane was 2.00 L m^–2 h^–1; its tensile strength was 17.07 MPa. Finally, these PPS porous membranes with controllable pore structure as well as size can be widely used in the chemical industry and energy field for liquid purification. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry     

Fabrication of cellulose acetate ultrafiltration membrane with diphenyl ketone via thermally induced phase separation

With diphenyl ketone as diluent, cellulose acetate (CA) ultrafiltration (UF) membrane with a bicontinuous structure was prepared via thermally induced phase separation (TIPS) method. The liquid–liquid phase separation region of CA/diphenyl ketone system was measured and the maximum corresponding polymer concentration was approximately 53 wt %. The effects of polymer concentration, coarsening time and coarsening temperature on the morphologies, and mechanical properties of CA membranes were investigated systematically. As the polymer concentration increased from 15 to 30 wt %, the bicontinuous structure could be obtained and the tensile strength of CA membranes increased from 3.92 to 30.17 MPa. With the increase of coarsening time, the thickness of dense skin layer and the asymmetry of cross‐section reduced. However, excess coarsening rendered the membrane morphology evolved from a bicontinuous structure to a cellular structure. When the coarsening time was 5 min, the bicontinuous structure in cross‐section showed good interconnectivity and the dense skin layer exhibited a thin thickness of 2 μm. The fabricated CA hollow fiber UF membrane exhibited a high tensile strength of 31.00 MPa and rejection of 96.10% for dextran 20 kDa. It is indicated that diphenyl ketone is a competitive diluent to prepare CA membranes with excellent performance via TIPS. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 42669.     

Microbial uptake of diesel oil sorbed on soil and oil spill clean‐up sorbents

Sorbent effects in the microbial uptake of diesel oil were determined for black cotton soil (BCS) and two oil spill clean‐up sorbents, ie peat sorb and spill sorb. Biodegradation studies were conducted in mass transfer limited batch slurry microcosms using microorganisms capable of direct interfacial uptake of diesel oil. Under identical loading conditions, the amounts of diesel oil initially loaded on the various sorbents were 178, 288 and 649 mg g^?1 for BCS, spill sorb and peat sorb, respectively. Total biodegradation of sorbed diesel was comparable for all the sorbents (45–52 mg), however, the biodegradation rates were significantly different. Peat sorb demonstrated a distinct initial lag phase, the biodegradation rate in spill sorb was initially slower, whereas biodegradation at a high rate commenced immediately for BCS. The maximum biodegradation rates observed for BCS, spill sorb and peat sorb microcosms were 7.9, 5, and 2.9 mg day^?1, respectively. Thus, the maximum biodegradation rate increased as the diesel oil loading decreased. Our results indicate that spill clean‐up sorbents have greater bioavailability limitations compared with soils and this is linked with their significantly higher loading capacity and internal porosity. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

A thermally regenerable composite sorbent of crosslinked poly(acrylic acid) and ethoxylated polyethyleneimine for water desalination by Sirotherm process

Crosslinked poly(acrylic acid) (XPAA) made by copolymerization of acrylic acid and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate in bulk was further reacted with 80% ethoxylated polyethyleneimine, and the latter insolubilized by treatment with glutaraldehyde. The resulting composite sorbent, XPAA(EPEI.XG), containing carboxylic acid groups and weakly basic tertiary amine groups in close proximity in the same resin bead exhibited thermally regenerable desalination property, simulating the well‐known Sirotherm? resins. For NaCl and MgCl₂, the sorbent has saturation capacities of 0.796 and 0.839 meq/g (dry) sorbent, respectively, at 30°C but less than 0.1 meq/g (dry) sorbent at 80–90°C. The equilibrium sorption data at 30°C fit well to both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms for single‐component sorption and to Butler‐Ockrent and Jain‐Snoeyink models for bicomponent sorption. Although the sorption of NaCl exhibits a plateau in the pH range of 4–5, that of MgCl₂ increases sharply above pH 4 because of additional sorption by cation exchange at the ionic sites formed at higher pH. The sorption rate data show characteristics of particle‐diffusion controlled ion‐exchange process, yielding diffusivity values of 1.0–1.3 × 10^?6 cm²/s for NaCl and 3.0–3.5 × 10^?7 cm²/s for MgCl₂, in the initial period at 30°C, with the diffusivity falling abruptly in both cases at higher conversions. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Phase Separation Phenomenon and Mechanism of Ce0.6Zr0.4O2 Powders Prepared Using Chemical Coprecipitation Method

Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ (C60Z) powders were synthesized using the chemical coprecipitation method to investigate the phase separation mechanism. The phase separation of C60Z powders occurred during the heating step (>1100°C), suggesting that it might be a thermally activated process. The activation energy for the phase separation of C60Z was 398 (±20) kJ/mol and the Avrami parameter was ~1.0, indicating that the phase separation may be interface controlled. We suggested that Zr⁺⁴ diffusion played an important role in C60Z phase separation due to the ionic radius of Zr⁺⁴ being smaller than that of Ce⁺⁴. The C60Z powders tended to aggregate, which induced the driving force for the phase separation resulting from the surface energy difference between the particle surface and the interface. The phase separation behavior of C60Z powders was very similar to the initial stage of sintering. After high‐temperature treatment, more Zr⁺⁴ ions diffused to the interface between C60Z particles to lower the surface energy of the system than did Ce⁺⁴ ions, which resulted in the composition gradually being changed and phase separation. Therefore, the phase separation of C60Z powders can be effectively decreased by the addition of Al⁺³, which suppresses aggregation.     

Preparation of blend polyethersulfone/cellulose acetate/polyethylene glycol asymmetric membranes for oil–water separation

Blend PES/CA hydrophilic membranes were prepared via a phase-inversion process for oil–water separation. PEG-400 was introduced into the polymer solution in order to enhance phase-inversion and produce high permeability membranes. A gas permeation test was conducted to estimate mean pore size and surface porosity of the membranes. The membranes were characterized in terms of morphology, overall porosity, water contact angle, water flux and hydraulic resistance. A cross-flow separation system was used to evaluate oil–water separation performance of the membranes. From FESEM examination, the prepared PES/CA membrane presented thinner outer skin layer, higher surface porosity with larger pore sizes. The outer surface water contact angle of the prepared membrane significantly decreased when CA was added into the polymer solution. The higher water flux of the PES/CA membrane was related to the higher hydrophilicity and larger pore sizes of the membrane. From oil–water separation test, the PES/CA membrane showed stable oil rejection of 88 % and water flux of 27 l/m² s after 150 min of the operation. In conclusion, by controlling fabrication parameters a developed membrane structure with high hydrophilicity, high surface porosity and low resistance can be achieved to improve oil rejection and water productivity.     

Recyclable porous polyurethane sponge for highly efficient oil–water separation

Oil spills and chemical leakages have caused severe environmental problems. Physical absorption of the spilled oils and chemical reagents by absorbing materials is an efficient and economical approach to solve these problems. Herein, we have prepared a porous thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) sponge by combining the thermally induced phase separation method with the selective dissolution of water-soluble PEG components. The selective removal of PEG components from the walls of TPU sponges could increase the intensities of free volume holes and surface areas of TPU sponges. The content of free volume holes and surface areas of TPU sponge reached its maximum with the TPU/PEG ratio of 1:1. The increased roughness could improve the absorption capacities of TPU sponges for various oils/organic solvents. Moreover, due to its excellent compressibility, this TPU sponge could be reused 20 times with little loss of saturated absorption capacity. In addition, this TPU sponge exhibited excellent separation ability for the toluene from the toluene/water mixture and emulsion. In all, we have developed a facile method to prepare TPU sponge absorbent with excellent absorption performance, which holds great potential in the application of large-scale oil/water separation.     

Hydrophobic and fire-resistant carbon monolith from melamine sponge: A recyclable sorbent for oil–water separation

Here we report a new strategy for fabrication of macro/mesoporous carbon monolith from commercially available and low-cost melamine sponge. This synthesis route involves the cooperative self-assembly and coating of block copolymer mixed with resol on the melamine sponge, followed by pyrolysis at different temperatures. The as-fabricated carbon monolith exhibits high porosity and excellent hydrophobicity, thus can be used as a potential sorbent for the removal of oil from water. The intrinsic fire-resistant property of obtained carbon monolith makes it a recyclable sorbent for oil–water separation. More importantly, benefiting from the low-cost, available raw material and simple synthesis route, the production of the carbon monolith can be easily scaled up. This work offers a simple pathway to prepare carbon monolith, which is a promising candidate in the field of oil spill cleanup.     

Rheology behavior of high‐density polyethylene/diluent blends and fabrication of hollow‐fiber membranes via thermally induced phase separation

The phase‐separation behavior of high‐density polyethylene (HDPE)/diluent blends was monitored with a torque variation method (TVM). The torque variation of the molten blends was recorded with a rheometer. It was verified that TVM is an efficient way to detect the thermal phase behavior of a polymer–diluent system. Subsequently, polyethylene hollow‐fiber membranes were fabricated from HDPE/dodecanol/soybean oil blends via thermally induced phase separation. Hollow‐fiber membranes with a dense outer surface of spherulites were observed. Furthermore, the effects of the spinning temperature, air‐gap distance, cold drawing, and HDPE content on the morphology and gas permeability of the resultant membranes were examined. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Macroscopic cavities within a microporous 3-D network: A poly(γ-glutamic acid) monolith prepared by combination of particulate templates and a phase separation technique

By using a thermally induced phase separation (TIPS) technique, a poly(γ-glutamic acid) (PGA) monolith was prepared from a polymer solution in which submillimeter-sized salt particles were dispersed. The monolith was then subjected to internal crosslinking reaction with hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), followed by washing off the salt particles with water. This simple procedure was found to successfully furnish a unique solid material in which submillimeter-sized cavities are uniformly distributed over a monolithic 3-D microporous network created by the phase separation. This characteristic structure was indeed confirmed by cross-sectional analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A large surface area (53 m²/g) was suggested by the Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) method. Moreover, remarkable pH-responsivity was demonstrated in terms of fully reversible expansion-shrinkage and capture-release of copper(II) ion. On this basis, the present monolith has promising prospects for a wide range of applications, especially in biomedicine, biotechnology and environmental arena.     

Thermodynamic and kinetic investigation of heavy metals sorption in packed bed columns by recycled lignocellulosic materials from olive oil production

Agricultural wastes derived from olive oil production were used in wastewater engineering as lead, cadmium, and nickel ions sorbents. Experiments were carried out in distilled water (T_room) by the use of packed bed columns filled with grains (1–3?mm) which were eluted with single and multimetal solutions in the 3–10?mg/L concentration range. Operations were performed with different sorbent dosage (4–8?g) at flow rates ranging 0.3–0.7?L/h until exhaustion. Best retention capacities were 8.15, 3.5, and 2.9?mg/g_sorbent respectively for Pb⁺², Cd⁺², and Ni⁺² in the case of the multimetal system (0.3?L/h, 8?g of sorbent, and 10?mg/L influent solution). EDX analysis carried out on the sorbent surface showed that the wt % ratios between the sorbed metals were similar to the ratios between the column overall capacities. Inter-diffusion of the ions in the Nernst stationary liquid film around the particle was identified as the step which controls the kinetics of the process. Exhausted wastes were successively recycled in cement mortars together with another aggregate as exhausted porous glass in order to obtain a lightweight composite with good consistency and interesting mechanical resistances.     

An efficient extraction and clean‐up procedure for pesticide determination in olive oil

This work reports a simple, rapid, and effective extraction method based on liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) followed by matrix solid‐phase dispersion‐sonication for detection, identification and quantification of multiclass pesticides in virgin olive oil using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC‐QTOF‐MS). LLE to extract pesticide residues in virgin olive oil was performed in order to study the centrifugation efficiency to obtain high recovery yield and low co‐extract fat residue in the final extract. Different suitable parameters of MSPD procedure were evaluated, such as nature of dispersing phase, clean‐up adsorbent, and volume of eluting solvent (acetonitrile) in different extraction conditions, with or without sonication. The best results were obtained using 5 g of virgin olive oil, 2 g of PSA as dispersant sorbent, 2 g of Florisil/GCB (70:30 w/w) as clean‐up sorbent, and 15 mL of acetonitrile as eluting solvent under conditions of 15 min ultrasonic bath at RT. Method validation was performed in order to study sensitivity, linearity, precision, and accuracy. Average recoveries ranged between 73.7 and 104.2% with relative SDs 5.3–13.4% at three concentration levels (25, 50, and 100 µg/kg). Detection and quantification limits ranged from 1.5 to 5 µg/kg and 3 to 9 µg/kg, respectively.     

Ultralight and hydrophobic nanofibrillated cellulose aerogels from coconut shell with ultrastrong adsorption properties

Ultralight aerogels based on nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) isolated from coconut shell were successfully prepared via a mild fast method, which included chemical pretreatment, ultrasonic isolation, solvent exchange, and tert‐butanol freeze drying. The as‐prepared NFC aerogels with complex three‐dimensional fibrillar networks had a low bulk density of 0.84 mg/cm³ (specific surface area = 9.1 m²/g and pore volume = 0.025 cm³/g), maintained a cellulose I crystal structure, and showed more superior thermal stability than the coconut shell raw materials. After the hydrophobic modification by methyl trichlorosilane (MTCS), the NFC aerogels exhibited high water repellency properties, an ultrastrong oil‐adsorption capacity (542 times that of the original dry weight of diesel oil), and superior oil–water separation performance. Moreover, the absorption capabilities of the MTCS‐treated NFC aerogels were as high as 296?669 times their own weights for various organic solvents and oil. Thus, this class of high‐performance adsorbing materials might be useful for dealing with chemical leaks and oil spills. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 42037.